Azerbaijan

The Republic of Azerbaijan is a contiguous transcontinental presidential republic in the Caucasus region, situated at the crossroads of Eastern Europe and Western Asia. Historically divided across Russia and Persia, the current territory of Azerbaijan had a brief period of independence in 1918 before being incorporated into the Soviet Union in 1920. It became fully independent again in 1991.¹

According to the CIA Word Factbook, the religious distribution in Azerbaijan is predominantly Muslim, with 97.3% of the population identifying as such, primarily Shia. Christians account for 2.6% of the population, while other religious affiliations and those unaffiliated with any religion each represent less than 0.1%.² However, Islamic practice tends to be more cultural than devout, with many individuals following cultural customs rather than engaging in active religious practices.³

Azerbaijan is a member state of the Organization of Islamic Cooperation (OIC).

Constitution and government

Political context

The current President of Azerbaijan, Ilham Aliyev, has been in power for over 20 years, succeeding his father who had been in charge of the country since independence. Aliyev was reelected with a landslide victory in February 2024 following an election absent of any real opposition.⁴

According to Transparency International’s Corruption Perceptions Index (2024), Azerbaijan ranks 153rd out of 180 countries, with a score of 23 out of 100 in public sector corruption.⁵ This ranking suggests various forms of corruption, such as bribery, embezzlement, nepotism, and a lack of transparency in government processes. These issues reflect the misuse of governmental power for personal or political gain.

A “secular state”

Azerbaijan’s Constitution (Articles 18 & 48)⁶ establishes the separation of State and religion, guarantees the equality of all religions, and recognises the right of individuals to freedom of thought, religion and belief. According to the Constitution no one may be required to profess his or her religious beliefs or be persecuted for them. The spread and promotion of religions or religious movements that “humiliate human dignity and contradict the principles of humanism”⁷ are prohibited.

In reality, Azerbaijan contravenes core humanist values; it restricts democracy, infringes on freedoms and violates human rights. The state of respect for freedom of religion or belief is somewhat more complex than might appear in the Constitution. As described by a professor of history at Baku State University:

“On the one hand, there is an official Islam loyal to the government. On the other hand, there are Islamic communities that aim to exist without the secular state’s interference. [….] Islamic communities complain that the state infringes on their freedom of conscience, while the government complains that independent communities are a threat to the secular nature of the state.”⁸

Government interference in religion

Although Azerbaijan is secular according to its Constitution, Islam is an integral part of its cultural and social identity. The majority of the population is Muslim, while the rest adhere to other faiths or are non-religious, and these groups lack official representation.⁹ The Azerbaijani government maintains considerable control over religious practices which affects not only the majority Shia Muslim population but also other religious groups, such as Christian Armenians and various minority faiths.¹⁰ Regulations in place aim to prevent any religious group, including Muslims, from gaining political influence, thereby reinforcing the government’s control and maintaining its hold on power. However, the government likes to emphasize interreligious dialogue and the nation’s multiculturalism to bolster its international reputation.¹¹

State interference in religious organizations is the norm. Religious organizations must be officially registered to legally operate and practice their faith. The Law on Freedom of Religion¹² enforces stringent rules on religious communities, including restrictions on their practices, leaders, and religious education.

The government provides funding for “traditional” religious groups. In 2023, it allocated funds to Muslim communities; the Russian Orthodox Church; the religious community of Mountain Jews; the European Jewish community (Ashkenazi); the Apostolic Prefecture of the Catholic Church of Baku; the Albanian-Udi Christian community; and the Moral Values Promotion Foundation. The Moral Values Promotion Foundation used the funds to support some smaller, non-Muslim religious communities.¹³

In 2022, the law was amended to transfer responsibility for appointing religious personnel in all mosques from the state-controlled Caucasian Muslim Board (CMB) to the State Committee on Religious Associations of the Republic of Azerbaijan (SCWRA). The SCWRA manages the registration process and may appeal to the courts to suspend a religious group’s activities. In June 2023, the SCWRA deputy chairman stated the commission had dismissed 181 Muslim clerics from their positions since the new regulations came into force.¹⁴ The government also has authority to approve the appointment of religious figures in non-Islamic religious communities.¹⁵ The U.S. Department of State’s International Religious Freedom Report 2023 indicates that the government frequently denies registration to non-Muslim religious groups.

The law bans activities by unregistered religious groups, punishable by fines or imprisonment.

Crackdown on religious activists

Following tensions between Azerbaijan and Iran, hundreds of Shia Muslims, including theologians and activists have been imprisoned on alleged drug charges.¹⁶Human rights defenders report that they are being targeted in connection to their religious activities, perceived religious activism, and criticism of the government’s religious policies.¹⁷

Religious Minorities

In December 2023, the U.S. Secretary of State placed Azerbaijan on the Special Watch List under the International Religious Freedom Act of 1998, due to its involvement in or tolerance of severe violations of freedom of religion or belief.¹⁸

Following its successful 2023 military campaign to take control of the disputed territory of Nagorno-Karabakh, during which almost the entire population fled to neighboring Armenia, Azerbaijan has exhibited substantial intolerance towards the remaining Armenians, who face significant pressures, including limitations on religious practices and the destruction of cultural and religious sites. This intolerance has been reported by various human rights organizations who describe hate speech against Armenians used in the state-controlled media and actions that undermine peace-building efforts.¹⁹ Armenians in Nagorno-Karabakh are increasingly concerned that their religious heritage is at risk.²⁰

Education and children’s rights

Religious Education

Article 18 of the Constitution of Azerbaijan mandates that the state education system maintains a secular character.

While there is currently no religious curriculum at elementary and high schools, a government minister announced that, from September 2020, a class dedicated to teaching Islam and other religions would be introduced in school and university curricula. The new course is framed as teaching “multiculturalism”, an apparent attempt to fight radicalism in the country.²¹ At the time of writing, it was unclear whether the course had been implemented.

Child marriage

According to Article 34 of the Constitution, every individual has the right to marry upon reaching the legally prescribed age, which has been set at 18 without exception.²² Marriages must be entered into freely without coercion (Article 34.1-2).

The Criminal Code²³ outlaws early marriage and forced marriage. However, child marriage continues to affect 11% of girls, with regional variations within the country attributed to traditional and conservative attitudes especially in mountainous areas. Gaps in legislation and weak law enforcement contribute to an environment of impunity.²⁴

Religious practices are reported to significantly impact child marriage in Azerbaijan. Kabin marriages, performed by local mullahs, are not legally recognized and often occur without verifying the girl’s age, leaving her unprotected by law. The sighe custom, involving temporary marriages sanctioned by religious authorities, further contributes to the persistence of child marriage.²⁵

Abduction for forced marriage (bride kidnapping) is another concerning issue and a loophole in the law means that perpetrators who voluntarily release their victims are exempt from criminal liability.²⁶

Family, Community & Society

Women’s rights

Traditional patriarchal values and gender stereotypes have persistently obstructed genuine socioeconomic and political equality in Azerbaijan. Despite formal gender equality measures, these deep-rooted attitudes continue to limit women’s advancement.²⁷ Additionally, women and girls spend significantly more time on unpaid care and domestic work compared to men, underscoring ongoing gender disparities.²⁸

While abortion is legal and accessible as a healthcare procedure in Azerbaijan, it is misused to favor male fetuses over females. The undervaluing of girls in society and the preference for having sons has led to one of the highest rates of selective abortion in the world.²⁹

LGBTI+ rights

While homosexuality is no longer criminalized in Azerbaijan, there is no legal recognition of same-sex couples and LGBTI+ people do not benefit from any legal protections from discrimination or hate crimes based on gender identity or sexual orientation.³⁰

Azerbaijani society is generally hostile to the LGBTI+ community and the government has intensified crackdowns on LGBTI+ people in recent years.³¹ Law enforcement officers tend to turn a blind eye to incitement to violence and attacks by anti-LGBTI+ groups and individuals.³² The murderer of journalist and LGBTI+ activist, Avaz Hafizli in February 2022, was sentenced to only 9-and-a-half years in prison, the minimum sentence for murder, despite the premeditated and brutal nature of the crime and the fact that he admitted to killing Hafizli specifically because of his sexual orientation.³³ Activists had called for a tougher sentence to be handed down by the courts and claim that the sentencing in this case demonstrates the stigmatization and lack of protection for LGBTI+ people in the country.³⁴

Freedom of expression, advocacy of humanist values

The authorities in Azerbaijan maintain severe restrictions on freedoms of expression, assembly, and association. Instances of torture and ill-treatment in police custody and places of detention are common. The government has cracked down on protests and arrested those who criticize the government. Restrictive laws impede NGOs from operating independently and accessing funding.³⁵

Media Freedom

While the Constitution guarantees freedom of the press, the authorities severely restrict the media in practice. There are few media outlets not controlled by the government and those that are independent are subject to government harassment with journalists sent to prison on fabricated charges.³⁶ The government has repeatedly blocked websites that feature opposition views and the authorities monitor internet use and punish critical bloggers.³⁷

In June 2020, an Azerbaijani court convicted a reporter from the only remaining opposition paper (Azadlig), Tezehan Miralamli, on trumped up charges of “hooliganism”.³⁸ Human Rights groups indicate that his case is emblematic of the harassment of independent journalists in the country.³⁹

A strict new media law was adopted in 2022 requiring media outlets to register with the authorities.⁴⁰ In July 2023, Vugar Mammadov, editor-in-chief of the online news outlet, Hurriyat, was detained along with a guest on his program after they criticized corruption in the Defense Ministry.⁴¹

In December 2023, authorities detained several journalists from independent outlets such as Abzas Media and Kanal 13 on currency smuggling charges.⁴²

In March 2024, a police raid took place on Toplum TV’s offices in Baku. During the raid, authorities detained journalists, shut down the office, and hacked the channel’s YouTube account, underscoring a harsh crackdown on independent media and an attempt to suppress dissent.⁴³

Freedom of Assembly

Article 49 of the Constitution of Azerbaijan affirms that everyone has the right to assemble freely with others (Article 49.1). Additionally, individuals may, with prior notification to the relevant government authorities, gather peacefully—without weapons—to hold rallies, meetings, demonstrations, street marches, and pickets, as long as public order and public morals are maintained (Article 49.2).

However, recent developments in Azerbaijan reveal substantial limitations on the freedom of assembly, notably seen in the government’s disproportionate violent response to protests. Tear gas, rubber bullets and physical violence have been used by police to disperse protests resulting in serious injuries.⁴⁴ These measures effectively curb public demonstrations and dissenting opinions.

Freedom of Association

Article 58 of the Constitution guarantees that everyone is free to associate with others and has the right to create or join any association, including political parties, trade unions, and other public organizations, with the freedom of these associations being protected (Article 58.1-2).

Despite this, freedom of association in Azerbaijan is heavily restricted by government-imposed limitations and bureaucratic barriers. Non-governmental organizations encounter significant challenges in the registration process, face strict regulations on foreign funding, and are subjected to heightened government surveillance, which impedes their effectiveness. Activists and organizations addressing sensitive topics, such as human rights and political dissent, are particularly at risk of harassment and legal repercussions. This restrictive climate underscores broader issues concerning civil liberties and the suppression of independent civil society.⁴⁵

Women activists have been subjected to gender-based persecution, often used as tools for political retaliation. Concerns have been raised by local women activists about the safety of individuals whose private photographs, videos, and messages were leaked from the accounts of arrested opposition activist Bakhtiyar Hajiyev. The activists have accused the government of orchestrating these leaks, which have made the women targets of violence, including from their own families. The leaked information included names, images, and, in one instance, a home address. By the end of the year, investigations into this cybercrime were still ongoing.⁴⁶

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