China
China, the world’s most populous country with about 1.4 billion inhabitants1“China”, The World Factbook, CIA, last updated 13 November 2024 https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/china/#introduction[/ref],has one of the fastest-growing economies in the world–averaging 9% per year.[ref]“China: Overview”, The World Bank Group, last updated 24 October 2024 https://www.worldbank.org/en/country/china/overview It has remained under Communist one-party rule since 1949 but has embraced capitalism in recent decades.2Katie Simmons, “China’s government may be communist, but its people embrace capitalism”, Pew Research Center, 10 October 2014 https://www.pewresearch.org/short-reads/2014/10/10/chinas-government-may-be-communist-but-its-people-embrace-capitalism/ Although now less extreme than in the Maoist years, the ruling party maintains a tight grip on the population and regularly suppresses free speech and dissent.3“China 2023”, Amnesty International Report, accessed November 2024 https://www.amnesty.org/en/location/asia-and-the-pacific/east-asia/china/report-china/; Break Their Lineage, Break Their Roots: China’s Crimes against Humanity Targeting Uyghurs and Other Turkic Muslims, Human Rights Watch, 19 April 2021 https://www.hrw.org/report/2021/04/19/break-their-lineage-break-their-roots/chinas-crimes-against-humanity-targeting This is evident from its repression of the movement for democracy in Hong Kong and the mass detention of the Uyghur population in ‘re-education camps’ in Xinjiang province. The Chinese State justifies both actions under the pretense of fighting ‘terrorism’ and ‘subversion’.
Surveys have found China to be the least religious country in the world.4Conrad Hackett, “Is China a religious country or not? It’s a tricky question to answer”, Pew Research Center, 30 August 2023 https://www.pewresearch.org/short-reads/2023/08/30/is-china-a-religious-country-or-not-its-a-tricky-question-to-answer/ While this may be true, observers say that the numbers of adherents to religious groups are often under-reported and it is difficult to obtain reliable statistics.52023 Report on International Religious Freedom: China, US Department of State, accessed November 2024 https://www.state.gov/reports/2023-report-on-international-religious-freedom/china/
| Constitution and government | Education and children’s rights | Family, community, society, religious courts and tribunals | Freedom of expression advocacy of humanist values |
|---|---|---|---|
| Grave Violations |
| Severe Discrimination |
| Systemic Discrimination |
| Mostly Satisfactory |
Constitution and government
The Constitution6Constitution of the People’s Republic of China, accessed November 2024 http://www.npc.gov.cn/zgrdw/englishnpc/Constitution/node_2825.htm states that citizens have “freedom of religious belief.” This is not protected in practice. The Chinese Communist Party (CCP), to which almost all holders of public office belong, requires its members to be atheists.7“Chinese Communist Party promotes atheism, but many members still partake in religious customs”, Pew Research Center, 5 September 2023 https://www.pewresearch.org/short-reads/2023/09/05/chinese-communist-party-promotes-atheism-but-many-members-still-partake-in-religious-customs/ CCP members must renounce any faith and can be expelled based on practicing religion.82022 Report on International Religious Freedom: China, US Department of State, accessed November 2024 https://www.state.gov/reports/2022-report-on-international-religious-freedom/china/
Those who profess religion can only worship one of the five state-sanctioned religions: Buddhism, Catholicism, Islam, Protestantism, and Taoism.9“Religion in China”, Council on Foreign Relations, 15 May 2024 https://www.cfr.org/backgrounder/religion-china
Restriction on religious freedom
China’s leadership has always sought to regulate and restrict freedom of religion or belief. It considers any belief system, apart from the Marxist-Leninist ideology of the Chinese Communist Party, a threat to Chinese state security.102020 Report on International Religious Freedom: China, US Department of State, accessed November 2024 https://www.state.gov/reports/2020-report-on-international-religious-freedom/china/ Under the leadership of President Xi Jinping, the focus on control of religion has reached the highest echelons of government. It is a requirement for all religious communities in China to ‘sinicize’ by becoming ‘Chinese in orientation’ and aligning with Chinese culture and customs.11“10 things to know about China’s policies on religion”, Pew Research Center, 23 October 2023, https://www.pewresearch.org/short-reads/2023/10/23/10-things-to-know-about-chinas-policies-on-religion/ The CCP has started to show overt preference to those religions it perceives as more traditionally Chinese e.g. Buddhism and Taoism over those it regards as ‘foreign’ e.g. Christianity and Islam.12 Ian Johnson, “China Is Reversing Its Crackdown on Some Religions, but Not All”, Pew Research Center, 14 May 2024 https://www.cfr.org/expert-brief/china-reversing-its-crackdown-some-religions-not-all
A 1999 law13全国人民代表大会常务委员会关于取缔邪教组织 防范和惩治邪教活动的决定 (1999年10月30日第九届全国人民代表大会常务委员会第十二次会议通过) https://frjs.jschina.com.cn/31037/202004/t20200430_6626664.shtml;National People’s Congress, Decision of the Standing Committee of the National People’s Congress on banning heretical cult organizations, preventing and punishing cult activities, 30 October 1999 (translated by Asian Legal Information Institute) http://www.asianlii.org/cn/legis/cen/laws/dotscotnpcobhcopapca1356/ banning heretical “cult [xie jiao] organizations” prohibits certain religious or spiritual groups. Individuals belonging to such groups can face a punishment of up to life in prison. People can worship at home, although there are still reports of authorities harassing and detaining groups worshiping privately.142023 Report on International Religious Freedom: China, US Department of State, accessed November 2024 https://www.state.gov/reports/2023-report-on-international-religious-freedom/china/A new law came into force in 2023 to regulate religious venues and reinforce State control over the organizational structure and personnel of religious groups. Under the new law religious groups must keep files on staff activities, including any contact with foreign groups.15“China”, Freedom in the World 2024, Freedom House https://freedomhouse.org/country/china/freedom-world/2024
Persecution of religious minorities
There is significant religious discrimination, particularly of Uyghur Muslims in the Xinjiang region.16China: Draconian repression of Muslims in Xinjiang amounts to crimes against humanity, Amnesty International, 10 June 2021 https://www.amnesty.org/en/latest/news/2021/06/china-draconian-repression-of-muslims-in-xinjiang-amounts-to-crimes-against-humanity-2/In 2014, President Xi Jinping gave private speeches to CCP officials on the dangers of the Uyghurs, calling on the CCP to unleash the tools of “dictatorship” to eliminate “radical Islam” in Xinjiang.17Austin Ramzy and Chris Buckle, “‘Absolutely No Mercy’: Leaked Files Expose How China Organized Mass Detentions of Muslims”, The New York Times, 16 November 2019 https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2019/11/16/world/asia/china-xinjiang-documents.htmlThis marked the launch of the government’s “Strike Hard Campaign against Violent Extremism,” where over one million Uyghurs were sent to “indoctrination camps,” which essentially serve as concentration camps designed for brainwashing, forced labor, and ridding the Uyghurs of their cultural heritage and religious beliefs.18“Torture, forced abortions: Key allegations in UN report on Xinjiang”, France24, 1 September 2022 https://www.france24.com/en/asia-pacific/20220901-torture-forced-abortions-key-allegations-in-un-report-on-xinjiang Reasons for detention can be faith-based, including recitation of Arabic prayers, physical appearance, or clothing. An August 2022 UN investigation reported that Chinese officials were secretly carrying out forced abortions and sterilizations of Uyghur women,19“China forcing birth control on Uighurs to suppress population, report says”, BBC, 29 June 2020 https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-china-53220713providing more evidence for the argument that China’s actions meet the criteria for genocide contained in the UN Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide.
Other religious and belief minorities continue to face persecution by the Chinese government. The State has long sought to interfere in the practice of Tibetan Buddhism by subjecting it to “Sinicisation” policies.20 “China is accelerating the forced urbanization of rural Tibetans, rights group says”, Associated Press, 22 May 2024 https://apnews.com/article/china-tibet-relocation-a0b07de64a948db06f9bc9e5ff4ce215 Over 1.2 million Buddhists have been killed since 1949, nearly 6,000 monasteries and shrines have been destroyed, and it has evicted between 6,000 and 17,000 Tibetan and Han Chinese monks and nuns from Larung Gar and Yachen Gar Tibetan Buddhist Institutes.21Choetsow Tenzin, “Long Sho (“Rise Up”): A Reflection on 61 Years of Chinese Rule in Tibet”, Harvard International Review, 10 March 2020 https://hir.harvard.edu/chinaintibet/The belief in reincarnation and the role of lamas – spiritual teachers – are fundamental aspects of Tibetan Buddhism. The State interferes with the ability of Tibetan Buddhists to appoint their lamas, viewing such individuals as a separatist threat. The Dalai Lama has now been in exile for 64 years, and in 1995, Chinese authorities abducted a 6-year-old Panchen Lama, who has not been seen since.22“Later life in exile of the 14th Dalai Lama”, Britannica, updated 27 September 2024 https://www.britannica.com/biography/Dalai-Lama-14th/Later-life-in-exileThe Chinese government installed its candidate in his place.2325 Years After ‘Disappearing’ Tibetan Panchen Lama, China Is No Nearer to Its Goal, Human Rights Watch, 15 May 2020 https://www.hrw.org/news/2020/05/15/25-years-after-disappearing-tibetan-panchen-lama-china-no-nearer-its-goalIn recent years, the Chinese government has repeatedly stated that when the current Dalai Lama passes away, it will appoint its own Dalai Lama to replace him. It is illegal to sell or possess images of the Dalai Lama in Tibet, and those caught face prison sentences and harsh treatment.24Tsering Dhundup, “Tibetan sentenced to two years for possessing photos of Dalai Lama”, Phayul, 28 September 2023 https://www.phayul.com/2023/09/28/49051/
China’s persecution of the Falun-Gong spiritual movement is well documented. According to the Falun-Gong affiliated publication, Minghui, 188 Falun Gong adherents died in 2023 as a result of persecution. It also reported that 3,457 Falun Gong practitioners were arrested and 755 imprisoned.252023 Report on International Religious Freedom: China, US Department of State, accessed November 2024 https://www.state.gov/reports/2023-report-on-international-religious-freedom/china/
China’s Christians have also come under increasing repression and surveillance under President Xi. In early 2014, the government launched a programme of removing unauthorized Christian churches in the Zhejiang province – resulting in more than 230 being demolished and even more having their crosses removed. It has banned the sale of Bibles online and has declared its intention to issue a ‘reinterpretation’ of the text to conform to Chinese-style Christianity.26Lily Kuo, “In China, they’re closing churches, jailing pastors – and even rewriting scripture”, The Guardian, 13 June 2019 https://www.theguardian.com/world/2019/jan/13/china-christians-religious-persecution-translation-bibleIn 2023, the unregistered Church of Almighty God reported that the government had arrested at least 12,463 members imprisoned at least 2,207, and subjected at least 5,832 to torture or forced indoctrination. The group reported that at least 20 members had died as a result of persecution.272023 Report on International Religious Freedom: China, US Department of State, accessed November 2024 https://www.state.gov/reports/2023-report-on-international-religious-freedom/china/
Education and children’s rights
Children’s education
There are no faith-based primary or secondary schools nor religious education for primary or secondary school children. The teaching of atheism in schools is mandatory.
Parents can instruct children in the beliefs of officially recognized religions with the child’s participation in religious activities. In Xinjiang, where there is a large base of Muslims, officials require minors to complete nine years of compulsory education before they can receive religious education outside of school, a measure which appears to be part of efforts to achieve the “Sinicisation” of Muslims in the province. International human rights organizations report that large numbers of children from Xinjiang and Tibet are separated from their families and forced to attend boarding schools where they are subjected to intense political indoctrination.28“China”, Freedom in the World 2024, Freedom House https://freedomhouse.org/country/china/freedom-world/2024
Higher education
Religious activity is highly discouraged on university campuses. In 2018, a university in Northwest China’s Gansu Province banned religious activities on campus during the month of Ramadan, and the head of the university highlighted the principle of separation between education and religion.29“Chinese university stresses ban on religious activity on campus”, People’s Daily, 23 May 2018 http://en.people.cn/n3/2018/0523/c90000-9462972.html A Communist party directive gives guidance to universities on how to prevent the ‘foreign conversion’ of students.30 “10 things to know about China’s policies on religion”, Pew Research Center, 23 October 2023, https://www.pewresearch.org/short-reads/2023/10/23/10-things-to-know-about-chinas-policies-on-religion/Religious groups may apply to create faith-based universities and colleges for over-18-year-olds, but only if they are one of the five state-sanctioned religions.312023 Report on International Religious Freedom: China, US Department of State, accessed November 2024 https://www.state.gov/reports/2023-report-on-international-religious-freedom/china/The State limits the number of such religious institutions, their size, and the content they can teach. In 2021, the State Administration for Religious Affairs released their “Administrative Measures for Religious Institutions” setting out the conditions, standards, procedures and requirements for all religious institutions. Establishing new colleges is cumbersome and long-drawn out. Even when successful, their curricula must include “politics” and “patriotic” education, as defined by the State.32Mark Cui, “Administrative Measures for Religious Institutions Issued, to Take Effect in September”, China Christian Daily, 5 May 2021 https://www.chinachristiandaily.com/news/china/2021-05-05/administrative-measures-for-religious-institutions-issued–to-take-effect-in-september-_10143
Family, community and society
Gender equality
The Chinese Communist Party consistently declares its commitment to gender equality. Mao is quoted saying, “Women hold up half of the sky.” In practice, the country prioritizes men over women.
The State often encourages women to perform roles within the domestic sphere over career pursuits. In 2015, the state-led Women’s Federation launched a campaign aimed at professional women, warning that they would become “leftovers” if they did not marry and procreate before their mid-twenties.33 “Inequality in China and the impact on women’s rights”, The Conversation, 19 March 2015 https://theconversation.com/inequality-in-china-and-the-impact-on-womens-rights-38744
Since 2005, a number of laws and regulations have been passed in China to prevent sexual harassment. However, recent research suggests that the courts tend to provide more protection to the accused than the accuser.34中国法院性骚扰案件研究（2018–2020年）作者/龙大瑞 魏常昊 任奕欣 2024年07月22日 / Long Darui, Wei Changhao, Ren Yixin, “A Study on Sexual Harassment Cases in Chinese Courts (2018–2020)” Anti-discrimination Law Review Volume 9, July 22 2024, https://mp.weixin.qq.com/s/k_moooguz4ys9JSnwylo_Q; Jiahui Duan, “Workplace Sexual Harassment in China: A Comparative Inquiry into the Personality-Based Paradigm”, The Chinese Journal of Comparative Law, Volume 11, Issue 2, September 2023 https://academic.oup.com/cjcl/article-abstract/11/2/cxad008/7202292?login=false
Reproductive rights
Abortion is legal and available throughout the country, but has historically been used as a means of social control. Forced abortions were common during the one-child policy era and were used overwhelmingly on female fetuses. Newborn baby girls were also killed or left to die, such was the societal pressure to have a son to continue the traditional family line.35Mimi Lau, “Is abortion legal in China, how common is it and why is it controversial?”, myNEWS, 19 June 2022 https://www.scmp.com/news/china/politics/article/3182106/abortion-legal-china-how-common-it-and-why-it-controversial?module=perpetual_scroll_0&pgtype=article As China now seeks to reverse this policy and increase the birth rate, the government released guidelines in 2022 which aim to actively reduce the rate of abortions for non-medical reasons. This has been received by many as another threat of state restrictions on women’s reproductive health rights.36Mandy Zuo, “China faces backlash on move to reduce abortions as Beijing tries to boost birth rate to counter ageing population”, myNEWS, 28 September 2021 https://www.scmp.com/news/people-culture/gender-diversity/article/3150435/china-faces-backlash-move-reduce-abortions?module=inline&pgtype=article[/ref]
LGBTI+ rights
Homosexuality was decriminalized in China in 1997[ref]“LGBT Rights in China”, Equaldex, accessed November 2024 https://www.equaldex.com/region/china and while same-sex unions are not legally recognized, the government has previously acknowledged that many people in the country wished to see same-sex marriage made legal.37Annabelle Liang, BBC, “China crackdown pushes LGBT groups into the shadows”, 27 June 2023 https://www.bbc.com/news/business-65806846 However, there are no protections in place for LGBTI+ people and an increasingly conservative government agenda together with a renewed repression of civic rights has led to a clamp down on LGBTI+ groups and activists causing many organizations to close.38Jessie Lau, “‘It’s difficult to survive’: China’s LGBTQ+ advocates face jail and forced confession”, The Guardian, 15 January 2024 https://www.theguardian.com/global-development/2024/jan/15/its-difficult-to-survive-chinas-lgbtq-advocates-face-jail-and-forced-confessionShanghai Pride, for example, the country’s largest Pride event, has been shut down since 202039Steven Jiang, “‘End of the Rainbow’: Shanghai Pride shuts down amid shrinking space for China’s LGBTQ community”, CNN, 16 August 2020 https://edition.cnn.com/2020/08/14/asia/shanghai-pride-shutdown-intl-hnk/index.htmland in 2023 the Beijing LGBT Center announced its closure due to “forces beyond their control”.40Frédéric Lemaître, “Beijing’s LGBT Center forced to close its doors”, Le Monde, 17 May 2023 https://www.lemonde.fr/en/international/article/2023/05/17/beijing-s-lgbt-center-forced-to-close-its-doors_6026926_4.html
Freedom of expression
China continues subduing individuals or organizations advocating democratic reform.41Koh Ewe and Phoebe Kong, “Hong Kong jails 45 pro-democracy campaigners for subversion”, BBC, 19 November 2024 https://www.bbc.com/news/articles/cx2l4eynl4zo; “Hong Kong democracy activists convicted in national-security case”, Associated Press, 30 May 2024 https://www.marketwatch.com/story/hong-kong-democracy-activists-convicted-in-national-security-case-d893c834?utm_source=chatgpt.com All media outlets remain state-owned, resulting in one of the most tightly restricted media environments in the world.42“Ownership and control of Chinese Media”, Safeguard Defenders, 14 June 2021 https://safeguarddefenders.com/en/blog/ownership-and-control-chinese-mediaContent on the internet is heavily censored. Many journalists are imprisoned for their work, but so too are members of the public who share views on social media that could be seen to criticize or challenge the authorities.43“China 2023”, Amnesty International Report, accessed November 2024
https://www.amnesty.org/en/location/asia-and-the-pacific/east-asia/china/report-china/
In addition, China operates a highly sophisticated mass surveillance system through different methods, including facial recognition technology. Many Uyghurs in Xinjiang have been arrested, tried and convicted using computer algorithms to draw evidence based on data harvested by facial recognition cameras.44Charlie Campbell, “‘The Entire System Is Designed to Suppress Us.’ What the Chinese Surveillance State Means for the Rest of the World”, TIME, 21 November 2019 https://time.com/5735411/china-surveillance-privacy-issues/
There is very little room for freedom of expression in China. The recent case of the artist, Gao Zhen, is a primary example. Zhen was arrested in August 2024 and is still in detention at the time of writing.45“HRF calls on the Chinese government to immediately release artist Gao Zhen”, Human Rights Foundation, 4 November 2024
https://hrf.org/latest/hrf-calls-on-the-chinese-government-to-immediately-release-artist-gao-zhen/He was charged under a law passed in 2018 against “denigrating the reputation and honor of heroes and martyrs”.46Harold Thibault, “ Gao Zhen, a prominent contemporary artist, arrested in China”, Le Monde, 1 September 2024 https://www.lemonde.fr/en/international/article/2024/09/01/gao-zhen-a-prominent-contemporary-artist-arrested-in-china_6724401_4.html Zhen is known for his satirical sculptures of Mao Zedong, who founded the People’s Republic of China.
Freedom of assembly
Although, in theory, the Constitution provides citizens with the right to protest, in reality protests are rarely tolerated and are often met with police violence and arrests.
In 2022, dozens of people were detained for attending events to commemorate the victims of an apartment block fire in Urumqi, the capital of the Xinjiang region, and the associated protests against restrictive Covid-19 policies.47“China 2023”, Amnesty International Report, accessed November 2024 https://www.amnesty.org/en/location/asia-and-the-pacific/east-asia/china/report-china/
In 2023, the trial began of prominent #MeToo activist and journalist, Sophia Huang Xueqin, and labor rights activist, Wang Jianbing. They were both detained in 2021 on charges of “inciting subversion of state power” in connection with their involvement in training on non-violent protest and participation in private gatherings to discuss shrinking civil society space.48“China 2023”, Amnesty International Report, accessed November 2024 https://www.amnesty.org/en/location/asia-and-the-pacific/east-asia/china/report-china/
Freedom of association
“Foreign NGO Law”
On 1 January 2017, a law on the “Management of Domestic Activities of Overseas Non-governmental Organizations” entered into force. In order to keep working in China, foreign NGOs must submit themselves to greater government control, including finding government sponsors, registering with the police, and submitting annual reports on their financing. In addition, the law prohibits unregistered foreign groups from funding local counterparts. Any violation of these requirements could potentially result in asset confiscation or deportation.49Zheping Huang, “NGOs are under threat in China’s latest crackdown against “foreign forces””, Quartz, 4 January 2017 https://qz.com/873489/ngos-are-trying-to-stay-alive-in-chinas-latest-crackdown-against-foreign-forces; “Fact Sheet on China’s Foreign NGO Law”, The China NGO Project, 1 November 2017 https://www.chinafile.com/ngo/latest/fact-sheet-chinas-foreign-ngo-law
References
| ↑1 | “China”, The World Factbook, CIA, last updated 13 November 2024 https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/china/#introduction[/ref],has one of the fastest-growing economies in the world–averaging 9% per year.[ref]“China: Overview”, The World Bank Group, last updated 24 October 2024 https://www.worldbank.org/en/country/china/overview |
|---|---|
| ↑2 | Katie Simmons, “China’s government may be communist, but its people embrace capitalism”, Pew Research Center, 10 October 2014 https://www.pewresearch.org/short-reads/2014/10/10/chinas-government-may-be-communist-but-its-people-embrace-capitalism/ |
| ↑3 | “China 2023”, Amnesty International Report, accessed November 2024 https://www.amnesty.org/en/location/asia-and-the-pacific/east-asia/china/report-china/; Break Their Lineage, Break Their Roots: China’s Crimes against Humanity Targeting Uyghurs and Other Turkic Muslims, Human Rights Watch, 19 April 2021 https://www.hrw.org/report/2021/04/19/break-their-lineage-break-their-roots/chinas-crimes-against-humanity-targeting |
| ↑4 | Conrad Hackett, “Is China a religious country or not? It’s a tricky question to answer”, Pew Research Center, 30 August 2023 https://www.pewresearch.org/short-reads/2023/08/30/is-china-a-religious-country-or-not-its-a-tricky-question-to-answer/ |
| ↑5 | 2023 Report on International Religious Freedom: China, US Department of State, accessed November 2024 https://www.state.gov/reports/2023-report-on-international-religious-freedom/china/ |
| ↑6 | Constitution of the People’s Republic of China, accessed November 2024 http://www.npc.gov.cn/zgrdw/englishnpc/Constitution/node_2825.htm |
| ↑7 | “Chinese Communist Party promotes atheism, but many members still partake in religious customs”, Pew Research Center, 5 September 2023 https://www.pewresearch.org/short-reads/2023/09/05/chinese-communist-party-promotes-atheism-but-many-members-still-partake-in-religious-customs/ |
| ↑8 | 2022 Report on International Religious Freedom: China, US Department of State, accessed November 2024 https://www.state.gov/reports/2022-report-on-international-religious-freedom/china/ |
| ↑9 | “Religion in China”, Council on Foreign Relations, 15 May 2024 https://www.cfr.org/backgrounder/religion-china |
| ↑10 | 2020 Report on International Religious Freedom: China, US Department of State, accessed November 2024 https://www.state.gov/reports/2020-report-on-international-religious-freedom/china/ |
| ↑11 | “10 things to know about China’s policies on religion”, Pew Research Center, 23 October 2023, https://www.pewresearch.org/short-reads/2023/10/23/10-things-to-know-about-chinas-policies-on-religion/ |
| ↑12 | Ian Johnson, “China Is Reversing Its Crackdown on Some Religions, but Not All”, Pew Research Center, 14 May 2024 https://www.cfr.org/expert-brief/china-reversing-its-crackdown-some-religions-not-all |
| ↑13 | 全国人民代表大会常务委员会关于取缔邪教组织 防范和惩治邪教活动的决定 (1999年10月30日第九届全国人民代表大会常务委员会第十二次会议通过) https://frjs.jschina.com.cn/31037/202004/t20200430_6626664.shtml;National People’s Congress, Decision of the Standing Committee of the National People’s Congress on banning heretical cult organizations, preventing and punishing cult activities, 30 October 1999 (translated by Asian Legal Information Institute) http://www.asianlii.org/cn/legis/cen/laws/dotscotnpcobhcopapca1356/ |
| ↑14, ↑25, ↑31 | 2023 Report on International Religious Freedom: China, US Department of State, accessed November 2024 https://www.state.gov/reports/2023-report-on-international-religious-freedom/china/ |
| ↑15 | “China”, Freedom in the World 2024, Freedom House https://freedomhouse.org/country/china/freedom-world/2024 |
| ↑16 | China: Draconian repression of Muslims in Xinjiang amounts to crimes against humanity, Amnesty International, 10 June 2021 https://www.amnesty.org/en/latest/news/2021/06/china-draconian-repression-of-muslims-in-xinjiang-amounts-to-crimes-against-humanity-2/ |
| ↑17 | Austin Ramzy and Chris Buckle, “‘Absolutely No Mercy’: Leaked Files Expose How China Organized Mass Detentions of Muslims”, The New York Times, 16 November 2019 https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2019/11/16/world/asia/china-xinjiang-documents.html |
| ↑18 | “Torture, forced abortions: Key allegations in UN report on Xinjiang”, France24, 1 September 2022 https://www.france24.com/en/asia-pacific/20220901-torture-forced-abortions-key-allegations-in-un-report-on-xinjiang |
| ↑19 | “China forcing birth control on Uighurs to suppress population, report says”, BBC, 29 June 2020 https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-china-53220713 |
| ↑20 | “China is accelerating the forced urbanization of rural Tibetans, rights group says”, Associated Press, 22 May 2024 https://apnews.com/article/china-tibet-relocation-a0b07de64a948db06f9bc9e5ff4ce215 |
| ↑21 | Choetsow Tenzin, “Long Sho (“Rise Up”): A Reflection on 61 Years of Chinese Rule in Tibet”, Harvard International Review, 10 March 2020 https://hir.harvard.edu/chinaintibet/ |
| ↑22 | “Later life in exile of the 14th Dalai Lama”, Britannica, updated 27 September 2024 https://www.britannica.com/biography/Dalai-Lama-14th/Later-life-in-exile |
| ↑23 | 25 Years After ‘Disappearing’ Tibetan Panchen Lama, China Is No Nearer to Its Goal, Human Rights Watch, 15 May 2020 https://www.hrw.org/news/2020/05/15/25-years-after-disappearing-tibetan-panchen-lama-china-no-nearer-its-goal |
| ↑24 | Tsering Dhundup, “Tibetan sentenced to two years for possessing photos of Dalai Lama”, Phayul, 28 September 2023 https://www.phayul.com/2023/09/28/49051/ |
| ↑26 | Lily Kuo, “In China, they’re closing churches, jailing pastors – and even rewriting scripture”, The Guardian, 13 June 2019 https://www.theguardian.com/world/2019/jan/13/china-christians-religious-persecution-translation-bible |
| ↑27 | 2023 Report on International Religious Freedom: China, US Department of State, accessed November 2024 https://www.state.gov/reports/2023-report-on-international-religious-freedom/china/ |
| ↑28 | “China”, Freedom in the World 2024, Freedom House https://freedomhouse.org/country/china/freedom-world/2024 |
| ↑29 | “Chinese university stresses ban on religious activity on campus”, People’s Daily, 23 May 2018 http://en.people.cn/n3/2018/0523/c90000-9462972.html |
| ↑30 | “10 things to know about China’s policies on religion”, Pew Research Center, 23 October 2023, https://www.pewresearch.org/short-reads/2023/10/23/10-things-to-know-about-chinas-policies-on-religion/ |
| ↑32 | Mark Cui, “Administrative Measures for Religious Institutions Issued, to Take Effect in September”, China Christian Daily, 5 May 2021 https://www.chinachristiandaily.com/news/china/2021-05-05/administrative-measures-for-religious-institutions-issued–to-take-effect-in-september-_10143 |
| ↑33 | “Inequality in China and the impact on women’s rights”, The Conversation, 19 March 2015 https://theconversation.com/inequality-in-china-and-the-impact-on-womens-rights-38744 |
| ↑34 | 中国法院性骚扰案件研究（2018–2020年）作者/龙大瑞 魏常昊 任奕欣 2024年07月22日 / Long Darui, Wei Changhao, Ren Yixin, “A Study on Sexual Harassment Cases in Chinese Courts (2018–2020)” Anti-discrimination Law Review Volume 9, July 22 2024, https://mp.weixin.qq.com/s/k_moooguz4ys9JSnwylo_Q; Jiahui Duan, “Workplace Sexual Harassment in China: A Comparative Inquiry into the Personality-Based Paradigm”, The Chinese Journal of Comparative Law, Volume 11, Issue 2, September 2023 https://academic.oup.com/cjcl/article-abstract/11/2/cxad008/7202292?login=false |
| ↑35 | Mimi Lau, “Is abortion legal in China, how common is it and why is it controversial?”, myNEWS, 19 June 2022 https://www.scmp.com/news/china/politics/article/3182106/abortion-legal-china-how-common-it-and-why-it-controversial?module=perpetual_scroll_0&pgtype=article |
| ↑36 | Mandy Zuo, “China faces backlash on move to reduce abortions as Beijing tries to boost birth rate to counter ageing population”, myNEWS, 28 September 2021 https://www.scmp.com/news/people-culture/gender-diversity/article/3150435/china-faces-backlash-move-reduce-abortions?module=inline&pgtype=article[/ref]
LGBTI+ rightsHomosexuality was decriminalized in China in 1997[ref]“LGBT Rights in China”, Equaldex, accessed November 2024 https://www.equaldex.com/region/china |
| ↑37 | Annabelle Liang, BBC, “China crackdown pushes LGBT groups into the shadows”, 27 June 2023 https://www.bbc.com/news/business-65806846 |
| ↑38 | Jessie Lau, “‘It’s difficult to survive’: China’s LGBTQ+ advocates face jail and forced confession”, The Guardian, 15 January 2024 https://www.theguardian.com/global-development/2024/jan/15/its-difficult-to-survive-chinas-lgbtq-advocates-face-jail-and-forced-confession |
| ↑39 | Steven Jiang, “‘End of the Rainbow’: Shanghai Pride shuts down amid shrinking space for China’s LGBTQ community”, CNN, 16 August 2020 https://edition.cnn.com/2020/08/14/asia/shanghai-pride-shutdown-intl-hnk/index.html |
| ↑40 | Frédéric Lemaître, “Beijing’s LGBT Center forced to close its doors”, Le Monde, 17 May 2023 https://www.lemonde.fr/en/international/article/2023/05/17/beijing-s-lgbt-center-forced-to-close-its-doors_6026926_4.html |
| ↑41 | Koh Ewe and Phoebe Kong, “Hong Kong jails 45 pro-democracy campaigners for subversion”, BBC, 19 November 2024 https://www.bbc.com/news/articles/cx2l4eynl4zo; “Hong Kong democracy activists convicted in national-security case”, Associated Press, 30 May 2024 https://www.marketwatch.com/story/hong-kong-democracy-activists-convicted-in-national-security-case-d893c834?utm_source=chatgpt.com |
| ↑42 | “Ownership and control of Chinese Media”, Safeguard Defenders, 14 June 2021 https://safeguarddefenders.com/en/blog/ownership-and-control-chinese-media |
| ↑43 | “China 2023”, Amnesty International Report, accessed November 2024 https://www.amnesty.org/en/location/asia-and-the-pacific/east-asia/china/report-china/ |
| ↑44 | Charlie Campbell, “‘The Entire System Is Designed to Suppress Us.’ What the Chinese Surveillance State Means for the Rest of the World”, TIME, 21 November 2019 https://time.com/5735411/china-surveillance-privacy-issues/ |
| ↑45 | “HRF calls on the Chinese government to immediately release artist Gao Zhen”, Human Rights Foundation, 4 November 2024 https://hrf.org/latest/hrf-calls-on-the-chinese-government-to-immediately-release-artist-gao-zhen/ |
| ↑46 | Harold Thibault, “ Gao Zhen, a prominent contemporary artist, arrested in China”, Le Monde, 1 September 2024 https://www.lemonde.fr/en/international/article/2024/09/01/gao-zhen-a-prominent-contemporary-artist-arrested-in-china_6724401_4.html |
| ↑47, ↑48 | “China 2023”, Amnesty International Report, accessed November 2024 https://www.amnesty.org/en/location/asia-and-the-pacific/east-asia/china/report-china/ |
| ↑49 | Zheping Huang, “NGOs are under threat in China’s latest crackdown against “foreign forces””, Quartz, 4 January 2017 https://qz.com/873489/ngos-are-trying-to-stay-alive-in-chinas-latest-crackdown-against-foreign-forces; “Fact Sheet on China’s Foreign NGO Law”, The China NGO Project, 1 November 2017 https://www.chinafile.com/ngo/latest/fact-sheet-chinas-foreign-ngo-law |
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