Malawi

Malawi is a landlocked country in southern central Africa. A former British colony, it gained independence in 1964 and was governed as a one-party state until 1994 when it held its first multi-party elections.¹ With an estimated population of 22 million people,² Malawi is a relatively densely populated country despite being overwhelmingly rural.³

According to the 2018 Malawi Population and Housing Census,77.3%% of the population identify as Christian, 13.8% as Muslim, and 6.7% identified as belonging to other religions, whilst 2.1% of the population identified that they had no religion.⁴

Constitution and government

Article 33 of Malawi’s Constitution⁵ states that “Every person has the right to freedom of conscience, religion, belief and thought, and to academic freedom.” These rights are generally respected by the government.⁶ The Constitution, under Article 20, also declares that discrimination of persons on religious grounds is prohibited.

Article 68 of the Constitution reserves 32 out of 80 seats in the Senate for various sectors of society including (1.c.iii) representatives of “religion, who shall include representatives of the major religious faiths in Malawi”, apparently to the exclusion of representatives of secular worldviews and minority religious groups.

Current President Lazarus Chakwera has a special advisor on religious affairs who serves as the government’s link to faith groups and advises the President on issues related to religious policy. Most government meetings and events begin and end with a prayer, usually Christian in nature. At larger events, government officials generally invite clergy of different faiths to participate.⁷

Registration of religious groups

Religious groups must register with the government to be recognized as legal entities. Although registration is not obligatory, it enables the group to acquire land, rent property in its own name, and obtain utility services such as water and electricity. Regardless of registration status, the law permits religious groups to import certain goods duty free. In practice, however, the Ministry of Finance and Economic Affairs rarely grants duty exemptions.⁸

Education and children’s rights

Religious instruction is mandatory in public primary schools as part of Religious and Moral Education, and is available as an elective in public secondary schools. In some schools, the religious curriculum is a Christian-oriented “Bible knowledge” subject, while in others it is an interfaith “Moral and Religious Education” subject drawing from the Christian, Islamic, Hindu, and Baha’i faiths.

In Malawi, many schools are owned by religious bodies and receive funding. At grant-aided schools, a board appointed by the school’s operators decides whether the “Bible knowledge” or the “Moral and Religious Education” curriculum will be used. Muslim organizations continue to request that the Ministry of Education discontinue use of the optional “Bible knowledge” course and use only the broader-based “moral and religious education” curriculum in primary schools, particularly in predominantly Muslim areas.⁹

In 2021, the Ministry of Education signed an MoU with Christian and Muslim leaders that included a provision permitting female students to wear hijabs in their school as part of their uniform. According to the Muslim Association of Malawi, the implementation of this provision is inconsistent, with some students still having to request specific permission to wear the hijab. A separate proposal in the MoU would allow the inclusion of religious minorities on the board of the Malawi Institute of Education, however it is reported that this proposal has yet to be implemented.¹⁰

In May 2023, the High Court ruled that Rastafarian children with dreadlocks should be enrolled in government schools without hindrance. It declared that the government policy requiring all students to have closely shaven hair for admission into government schools was a violation of the right to education and freedom of religion and amounted to discrimination on religious grounds. The judge ordered the Ministry of Education to issue a letter to all schools in the country allowing Rastafarian children access to education.¹¹

Child Marriage

Despite 18 being set as the legal age for marriage in Malawi since 2017,¹² almost half of all girls marry before they turn 18 years old.¹³ The adolescent birth rate is high, estimated at 136 per 1,000 births.¹⁴ In 2020, following work by the UN Population Fund, a quarter of the country’s traditional chiefs promised to fight against child marriage in their communities.¹⁵

Family, community and society

Women’s rights

Serious human rights violations occur against women in Malawi. Violence against women and girls is particularly prevalent and is exacerbated during humanitarian crises. Discrimination against marginalized populations, such as sex workers, and harmful traditional practices are widespread. In addition, information about sexual and reproductive health is rarely available for women and girls and services that do provide guidance are difficult to access.¹⁶

Abortion

Abortion is illegal in Malawi in all circumstances except if the mother’s life is at risk. Women seeking an abortion face a prison sentence of up to seven years and anyone administering an abortion could face up to 14 years imprisonment.¹⁷ As a result, large numbers of women and girls turn to illegal abortions to end their pregnancies.¹⁸ A joint study by Malawi’s College of Medicine and the U.S.-based Guttmacher Institute reveals more than 140,000 backstreet abortions take place illegally every year in Malawi (a rate of 38 abortions per 1,000 women of reproductive age) resulting in 12,000 deaths. Between 6% and 18% of maternal deaths in Malawi are estimated to be the result of complications from unsafe abortion.¹⁹

In 2019, a group formed under the name of Religious Leaders Network for Choice and now has more than 1,000 Christian and Muslim members. The group undertakes research into the intersection of religion and sexual and reproductive health rights and advocates for safe access to abortion to policymakers, lawyers, judges, the media and MPs.²⁰

Despite these efforts, in June 2021, Malawi’s parliament withdrew an abortion bill from debate following opposition to the proposal to liberalize the country’s law to include circumstances of rape and incest. The withdrawal of the measure from consideration came three months after lawmakers unanimously rejected a motion to debate the Termination of Pregnancy Bill.²¹The bill had been strongly opposed by anti-abortion groups, many citing religious grounds, who urged lawmakers not to debate the issue. The Episcopal Conference of Malawi, the Evangelical Association of Malawi, Malawi Council of Churches and the Muslim Association of Malawi have long resisted any attempt to change the law. Henry Saindi, secretary general of the Episcopal Conference, said: “It is only God who can give or take life irrespective of whatever circumstance that has happened. Human life remains sacred and it must be preserved, promoted and defended. The bill does not reflect our values, our culture and our aspirations as the nation.”²²

Reports suggest that anti-abortion organizations funded by US groups spread misinformation in Malawi.²³ According to Reverend Cliff Nyekanyeka, who coordinates the Religious Leaders Network for Choice, “They say, ‘this is not your phenomenon in Africa. You don’t need abortions because this is a western thing’. But these people who are dying here in Malawi are Malawians.”²⁴

LGBTI+ rights

Chapter XV of the Penal Code, on “Offences Against Morality,” contains several provisions that criminalize adult consensual same-sex conduct. Section 153 provides that any person found guilty of committing an “unnatural offence /offence against the order of nature” is liable to 14 years in prison, with or without corporal punishment. Section 154 punishes attempted unnatural offences with seven years’ imprisonment, and section 156 punishes “gross indecency” between males with five years in prison, with or without corporal punishment. While these laws date back to British colonialism, former President Bingu wa Mutharika’s government enacted a new anti-homosexuality law in January 2011, amending the Penal Code to extend the crime of “gross indecency” to women. Section 137A of the amended Penal Code provides that any female person who, whether in public or private, commits “any act of gross indecency with another female” shall be guilty of an offense and liable to a prison term of five years.²⁵

The challenges facing LGBTI+ people in Malawi have been further exacerbated by the lack of clarity and divergent opinions regarding the legality of a moratorium on arrests and prosecutions for consensual same-sex conduct acts, issued in 2012 by the Minister for Justice, Samuel Tembenu. In December 2015, the Minister reaffirmed the moratorium but in 2016, Christian religious leaders were successful in getting the Mzuzu High Court to issue an order suspending the moratorium pending judicial review by the Constitutional Court.²⁶

In June 2024, Malawi’s Constitutional Court rejected a legal challenge to the Penal Code’s provisions by Malawian trans woman Jana Gonani²⁷ with the assistance of Nyasa Rainbow Alliance, a Malawian LGBTI+ organization. The Constitutional Court joined Gonani’s case to an ongoing separate challenge to all three of Malawi’s laws criminalizing same-sex sexual conduct.²⁸ According to Human Rights Watch, “the court’s decision exacerbates risks of arbitrary arrests and prosecutions against LGBTI+ people, as well as the unlawful shutdown of LGBTI+ rights organizations.”²⁹ In the lead up to the verdict some faith and religious leaders led an anti-LGBTI backlash, including nationwide demonstrations. The Nyasa Rainbow Alliance received threats and abuse including a raid on their offices in June 2023 by unknown individuals.³⁰

LGBTI+ people in Malawi face routine violence and discrimination in almost all aspects of their daily lives. Police physically assault, arbitrarily arrest and detain them, sometimes without due process or a legal basis, at other times as punishment for simply exercising basic rights, including seeking treatment in health institutions.³¹

Witchcraft accusations

Belief in witchcraft in Malawi has led to a number of mob attacks on people accused of witchcraft in recent years. This continues to happen at an alarming rate with the elderly and children being the primary victims.³² Reports indicate that in 2019 alone, at least 66 people were killed over accusations of witchcraft.³³

The Centre for Human Rights and Rehabilitation (CHRR) and the Centre for the Development of People in Malawi issued a joint statement in 2021 which noted that they were “dismayed by the continued attacks on people accused of witchcraft in the country and the failure to bring to justice perpetrators of such crime”.³⁴

In the same year, the Malawian Government unsuccessfully proposed a change in the law to officially recognize and penalize witchcraft. Humanists Malawi³⁵ argued that this proposal was “misguided,” and would likely lead to further stigmatization of those labelled ‘witches’ and those working to support them.³⁶ The special commission behind the proposal suggested that such a law would be in line with “Malawian beliefs.” The recommendation is now at the cabinet level, waiting to be debated as a bill in parliament.

In April 2022, the Afrobarometer survey report established that over 74% of the country’s population believes in the existence of witchcraft. This percentage equally comprises both the urban and rural populations.³⁷

Persecution of people affected by albinism

People with albinism in Malawi are at risk of attack and abduction due to the superstitious belief that their body parts can be used to bring luck and wealth. Since 2014, more than 170 people with albinism have been killed, including children and babies.³⁸ Amnesty International has reported a huge rise in attacks over the last two years.³⁹ In 2023, six people including a police officer and a Catholic priest were found guilty of transacting human remains of a person with albinism and sentenced to 30 years imprisonment with hard labor.⁴⁰ The high profile case has had political ramifications as some of the suspects alleged the involvement of senior politicians. Despite activists demanding the release of the findings of at least two government commissions of inquiry in the past few years, none have yet been made public.⁴¹

Freedom of expression, advocacy of humanist values

Freedom of expression is guaranteed under Articles 34 and 35 of the Constitution. Citizens are typically free to express their personal views without fear of surveillance or retribution. However, many Malawians do not feel comfortable criticizing the government and engage in self-censorship.⁴² This self-censorship is encouraged by Article 181 of the Penal Code,⁴³ which notes that “every person who in public places conducts himself in a manner likely to cause a breach of the peace shall be liable to a fine and to imprisonment of three months”.

The Electronic Transactions and Cybersecurity Act of 2016⁴⁴ places restrictions on online communications to “protect public order and national security”. The law also penalizes “offensive communication” via online platforms with fines or a maximum 12 months prison sentence. Moreover, Section 4 of the Protected Flag, Emblems and Names Act 2012⁴⁵ makes it an offense to “do any act or utter any words or publish or utter any writing calculated to insult, ridicule or to show disrespect” to the President, the national flag, armorial ensigns, the public seal or any other protected emblem or likeness. However, this law is rarely enforced⁴⁶ and the crime of sedition was repealed in 2022.⁴⁷

Media Freedoms

Freedom of the press is legally guaranteed. However, Malawian journalists are sometimes subjected to physical violence while reporting on demonstrations or police activity. They can also face arbitrary arrests, threats and online intimidation. Reports indicate that in recent years members of political parties and law enforcement agents have been known to assault journalists and investigative journalists have been forced to flee the country.⁴⁸

In November 2023, Zodiak Broadcasting Station reporter Raphael Mlozoa had his phone seized by police officers who deleted photos he had taken while covering anti-government protests in the Magochi district. The images showed officers arresting a demonstrator.⁴⁹

In 2024, the Malawi Defence Force (MDF) threatened to arrest top investigative journalist Gregory Gondwe, following his report exposing the military’s multi-million-dollar payments to companies owned by a businessman under investigation for corruption. Gondwe has gone into hiding following the threats.⁵⁰

According to Reporters Without Borders, religious groups are influential in the media and promote their faith through community radio stations, including Radio Maria and Radio Islam.⁵¹

Blasphemy

The Penal Code of Malawi⁵² criminalizes insult to religion under “Chapter XIV: Offenses Relating to Religion”; such offenses are punishable by a one-year prison sentence.

Article 127: Insult to religion of any class:

“Any person who destroys, damages, or defiles any place of worship or any object that is held sacred by any class of persons with the intention of thereby insulting the religion of any class of persons, or with the knowledge that any class of persons is likely to consider such destruction, damage, or defilement as an insult to their religion, shall be guilty of a misdemeanor.”

Article 129: Trespassing on burial places:

“Every person who with the intention of wounding the feelings of any person or of insulting the religion of any person, or with the knowledge that the feelings of any person are likely to be wounded, or that the religion of any person is likely to be insulted thereby, commits any trespass in any place of worship or in any place of sepulture or in any place set apart for the performance of funeral rites or as a depository for the remains of the dead, or offers any indignity to any human corpse, or causes disturbance to any persons assembled for the purpose of funeral ceremonies, shall be guilty of a misdemeanor.”

Article 130: Writing or uttering, words with intent to wound religious feelings:

“Any person who, with the deliberate intention of wounding the religious feelings of any other person, writes any word, or any person who, with the like intention, utters any word or makes any sound in the hearing of any other person or makes any gesture or places any object in the sight of any other person, shall be guilty of a misdemeanor and shall be liable to imprisonment for 1 year.”

No recent cases of arrests or prosecutions under these provisions have been found.

Negative perceptions of atheists and humanists

In May 2021, award-winning Malawian poet Robert Chiwamba produced a poem in which he called atheists ‘fools’. In the poem, he quoted Psalms 14:1 which says “the fool hath said in his heart, there is no God. They are corrupt, they have done abominable works, there is none that doeth good”. According to media reports, Chiwamba has been known to use the bible to attack other groups, such as the LGBTI+ community.⁵³

1. “Malawi Country Profile”, BBC, last updated 5 May 2023 https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-13864367 [↩]
2. “Malawi Population”, Worldometer, accessed August 2025 https://www.worldometers.info/world-population/malawi-population/ [↩]
3. “Malawi”, Britannica, accessed August 2025 https://www.britannica.com/place/Malawi/People [↩]
4. 2018 Malawi Population and Housing Census, National Statistical Office, accessed August 2025 https://malawi.unfpa.org/sites/default/files/resource-pdf/2018%20Malawi%20Population%20and%20Housing%20Census%20Main%20Report%20%281%29.pdf [↩]
5. Constitution of the Republic of Malawi, accessed August 2025 https://www.sdnp.org.mw/constitut/brfindx.html [↩]
6. “Malawi” chapter in Freedom in the World 2024, (Freedom House, 2024) https://freedomhouse.org/country/malawi/freedom-world/2024 [↩]
7. “Malawi” chapter in 2023 Report on International Religious Freedom, (U.S. Department of State, 2024) https://www.state.gov/reports/2023-report-on-international-religious-freedom/malawi/ [↩]
8. “Malawi” chapter in 2023 Report on International Religious Freedom, (U.S. Department of State, 2024) https://www.state.gov/reports/2023-report-on-international-religious-freedom/malawi/ [↩]
9. “Malawi” chapter in 2023 Report on International Religious Freedom, (U.S. Department of State, 2024) https://www.state.gov/reports/2023-report-on-international-religious-freedom/malawi/ [↩]
10. “Malawi” chapter in 2023 Report on International Religious Freedom, (U.S. Department of State, 2024) https://www.state.gov/reports/2023-report-on-international-religious-freedom/malawi/ [↩]
11. “Malawi” chapter in 2023 Report on International Religious Freedom, (U.S. Department of State, 2024) https://www.state.gov/reports/2023-report-on-international-religious-freedom/malawi/ [↩]
12. “Tackling child marriage in Malawi”, International Planned Parenthood Federation, accessed August 2025 https://www.ippf.org/resource/tackling-child-marriage-malawi [↩]
13. Andrew Brown, “In Malawi, local chief leads effort to end child marriage in community”, Unicef, 27 April 2018 https://www.unicef.org/stories/malawi-local-chief-leads-effort-end-child-marriage-community [↩]
14. “Malawi: Adolescent Pregnancy”, UNFPA, accessed August 2025 https://malawi.unfpa.org/en/topics/adolescent-pregnancy-0 [↩]
15. “Child marriage: ‘I was sold into marriage for £7 at the age of 12’”, BBC, 29 November 2023 https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-67549633 [↩]
16. “Human Rights and Gender Equality: Malawi”, UNFPA, accessed August 2025 https://malawi.unfpa.org/en/topics/human-rights-and-gender-equality [↩]
17. Sarah Johnson, “‘I’ve seen women suffer’: Malawi’s religious leaders fight for legal abortions”, The Guardian, 9 January 2025 https://www.theguardian.com/global-development/2025/jan/09/women-malawi-religious-leaders-legal-abortion-ban-maternal-mortality-christian-muslim [↩]
18. “Violence, unsafe abortions, preventable deaths: How many more injustices will it take for reform in Malawi?”, Amplify Change, 13 September 2024 https://amplifychange.org/news/how-many-more-injustices-will-it-take-for-reform-in-malawi/ [↩]
19. “Clandestine and Unsafe Abortion Common in Malawi”, Guttmacher Institute, 4 April 2017 https://www.guttmacher.org/news-release/2017/clandestine-and-unsafe-abortion-common-malawi# [↩]
20. Sarah Johnson, “‘I’ve seen women suffer’: Malawi’s religious leaders fight for legal abortions”, The Guardian, 9 January 2025 https://www.theguardian.com/global-development/2025/jan/09/women-malawi-religious-leaders-legal-abortion-ban-maternal-mortality-christian-muslim [↩]
21. Lameck Masina, “Malawi Parliament Withdraws Abortion Rights Bill after Objections”, VoA, 19 June 2021 https://www.voanews.com/a/africa_malawi-parliament-withdraws-abortion-rights-bill-after-objections/6207221.html [↩]
22. Charles Pensulo, “Malawi MPs debate bill to liberalise abortion laws as churches oppose”, The Guardian, 25 February 2021 https://www.theguardian.com/global-development/2021/feb/25/malawi-mps-debate-bill-to-liberalise-abortion-laws-as-churches-oppose [↩]
23. Josephine Chinele, “US Catholics funded Malawi opponents of legal abortion in cases of rape”, Open Democracy, 30 March 2021 https://www.opendemocracy.net/en/5050/us-catholics-funded-malawi-opponents-legal-abortion-cases-rape/ [↩]
24. Sarah Johnson, “‘I’ve seen women suffer’: Malawi’s religious leaders fight for legal abortions”, The Guardian, 9 January 2025 https://www.theguardian.com/global-development/2025/jan/09/women-malawi-religious-leaders-legal-abortion-ban-maternal-mortality-christian-muslim [↩]
25. Human Rights Watch Submission on the Republic of Malawi to the UN Human Rights Committee, Human Rights watch, 25 February 2021 https://www.hrw.org/news/2021/02/25/human-rights-watch-submission-republic-malawi-un-human-rights-committee [↩]
26. Human Rights Watch Submission on the Republic of Malawi to the UN Human Rights Committee, Human Rights watch, 25 February 2021 https://www.hrw.org/news/2021/02/25/human-rights-watch-submission-republic-malawi-un-human-rights-committee [↩]
27. Police arrested Gonani in September 2021 following an altercation in Mongochi, Malawi. A male officer subjected her to a genital examination, placed her in a male holding cell and sent her to a hospital under the pretext of confirming her mental state, simply for identifying as trans. On 23 December 2021, the Mongochi Senior Magistrate Court convicted her under the colonial-era law. She is currently serving an eight-year jail term at Blantyre Prison, one of Malawi’s most overcrowded men’s prisons. (Amnesty International, 2024)[↩]
28. “Malawi: Decision to uphold ban on consensual same-sex conduct is a bitter setback for human rights”, Amnesty International, 28 June 2024 https://www.amnesty.org/en/latest/news/2024/06/malawi-decision-to-uphold-ban-on-consensual-same-sex-conduct-is-a-bitter-setback-for-human-rights/ [↩]
29. “Malawi” chapter in World Report 2025, (Human Rights Watch, 2025) https://www.hrw.org/world-report/2025/country-chapters/malawi [↩]
30. “Malawi: Decision to uphold ban on consensual same-sex conduct is a bitter setback for human rights”, Amnesty International, 28 June 2024 https://www.amnesty.org/en/latest/news/2024/06/malawi-decision-to-uphold-ban-on-consensual-same-sex-conduct-is-a-bitter-setback-for-human-rights/;
    “Malawi” chapter in Freedom in the World 2024, (Freedom House, 2024) https://freedomhouse.org/country/malawi/freedom-world/2024 [↩]
31. Human Rights Watch, “Let Posterity Judge”: Violence and Discrimination against LGBT people in Malawi, (Human Rights Watch, 2018) https://www.hrw.org/report/2018/10/26/let-posterity-judge/violence-and-discrimination-against-lgbt-people-malawi [↩]
32. Wonderful Mkutche, “Witchcraft-Based Violence and Persecution in Malawi”, Skeptical Inquirer, May/June 2024 https://skepticalinquirer.org/2024/04/witchcraft-based-violence-and-persecution-in-malawi/ [↩]
33. Watipaso Mzungu, “CSOs appeal for swift investigations into Salima witchcraft killing: Urge Chakwera to do more than ratifying elderly protocol”, Nyasa Times, 16 April 2016 https://www.nyasatimes.com/csos-appeal-for-swift-investigations-into-salima-witchcraft-killing-urge-chakwera-to-do-more-than-ratifying-elderly-protocol/ [↩]
34. Watipaso Mzungu, “CSOs appeal for swift investigations into Salima witchcraft killing: Urge Chakwera to do more than ratifying elderly protocol”, Nyasa Times, 16 April 2016 https://www.nyasatimes.com/csos-appeal-for-swift-investigations-into-salima-witchcraft-killing-urge-chakwera-to-do-more-than-ratifying-elderly-protocol/ [↩]
35. Humanists Malawi challenges witchcraft as an un-evidenced superstition often resulting in abuse and persecution for those accused of “witchcraft”. It researches cases of witchcraft-based violence and in particular has worked to highlight the role of the police in upholding or undermining the human rights of those accused of witchcraft[↩]
36. “Malawi: Humanists express concern over proposal to recognize existence of ‘witchcraft’”, Humanists International, 29 March 2023 https://humanists.international/2023/03/malawi-humanists-express-concern-over-proposal-to-recognize-existence-of-witchcraft/ [↩]
37. “Most Malawians believe in the existence of witchcraft and support criminalising it”, Afrobarometer, 14 April 2022 https://www.afrobarometer.org/articles/most-malawians-believe-in-the-existence-of-witchcraft-and-support-criminalising-it/[↩]
38. Lameck Masina, “Albinism Community in Malawi Demands an End to Attacks”, VoA, 6 July 2023 https://www.voanews.com/a/albinism-community-in-malawi-demands-an-end-to-attacks-/7170820.html [↩]
39. “The ritual murders of people with albinism in Malawi”, Amnesty International, 1 April 2025 https://www.amnesty.org.uk/ritual-murders-people-albinism-malawi [↩]
40. Lameck Masina, “Albinism Community in Malawi Demands an End to Attacks”, VoA, 6 July 2023 https://www.voanews.com/a/albinism-community-in-malawi-demands-an-end-to-attacks-/7170820.html [↩]
41. Charles Pensulo, “A friend killed, and inquiries shelved: life fighting the stigma of albinism in Malawi”, The Guardian, 22 April 2025 https://www.theguardian.com/global-development/2025/apr/22/albinism-malawi-tonney-mkwapatira [↩]
42. “Malawi” chapter in Freedom in the World 2020, (Freedom House, 2020) https://freedomhouse.org/country/malawi/freedom-world/2020 [↩]
43. Malawi Penal Code (amended 2023), accessed August 2025 https://malawilii.org/akn/mw/act/1929/22/eng@2014-12-31 [↩]
44. Electronic Transactions and Cyber Security Act, 1 June 2017, accessed August 2025 https://malawilii.org/akn/mw/act/2016/33/eng@2017-12-31 [↩]
45. Protected Flag, Emblems and Names Act, July 1967, accessed August 2025 https://malawilii.org/akn/mw/act/1967/10/eng@2014-12-31 [↩]
46. “Malawi” chapter in Freedom in the World 2024, (Freedom House, 2024) https://freedomhouse.org/country/malawi/freedom-world/2024 [↩]
47. “Members of Parliament in Malawi remove sedition as criminal offence”, Media Institute of Southern Africa Malawi, 22 November 2022 https://malawi.misa.org/2022/11/22/members-of-parliament-in-malawi-remove-sedition-as-criminal-offence/ [↩]
48. “Malawi”, Reporters Without Borders, accessed August 2025 https://rsf.org/en/country/malawi;
    “Malawi” chapter in Freedom in the World 2024, (Freedom House, 2024) https://freedomhouse.org/country/malawi/freedom-world/2024 [↩]
49. “Malawi police seize ZBS reporter Raphael Mlozoa’s phone, delete photos of officers’ conduct”, Committee to protect Journalists, 7 December 2023 https://cpj.org/2023/12/malawi-police-seize-zbs-reporter-raphael-mlozoas-phone-delete-photos-of-officers-conduct/ [↩]
50. “Malawi: Journalist threatened and harassed: Gregory Gondwe”, Amnesty International, 14 February 2024 https://www.amnesty.org/en/documents/afr36/7698/2024/en/ [↩]
51. “Malawi”, Reporters Without Borders, accessed August 2025 https://rsf.org/en/country/malawi [↩]
52. Malawi Penal Code (amended 2023), accessed August 2025 https://malawilii.org/akn/mw/act/1929/22/eng@2014-12-31 [↩]
53. Watipaso Mzungu, “Robert Chiwamba’s ‘atheists are fools’ poem raps humanists”, Nyasa Times, 21 May 2021 https://www.nyasatimes.com/robert-chiwambas-atheists-are-fools-poem-raps-humanists/ [↩]