Sudan

Sudan, once the largest country in Africa, has long suffered from severe ethnic strife and been plagued by internal conflict. The country became independent of British-Egyptian rule in 1956 but wars between the predominantly Christian and Animist south against the predominantly Muslim north eventually led to independence for South Sudan in 2011.[ref]“Sudan Country Profile”, BBC, accessed March 2025 https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-14094995 [/ref]

Sudan’s long civil wars have given the country a poor human rights record and have led to large numbers of internal displacements within the country. The 2003-2020 war in the Darfur region between the Sudan Liberation Movement (SLM) and the Justice and Equality Movement (JEM) rebel groups against government forces led to a government campaign of ethnic cleansing against Darfur’s non-Arabs resulting in the deaths of an estimated 300,000 people.[ref]“Sudan Country Profile”, BBC, accessed March 2025 https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-14094995 [/ref]

At the time of writing, the country is caught up in another civil war between rival factions resulting in a devastating humanitarian crisis, and severe political and economic instability.[ref]“Fighting in Sudan: What you need to know about the crisis”, International Rescue Committee, updated 13 August 2024 https://www.rescue.org/eu/article/fighting-sudan-what-you-need-know-about-crisis [/ref]

According to projections by the Pew Research Center, an estimated 91% of Sudan’s population is Muslim (almost all Sunni), 5.4% is Christian, 2.8% follow indigenous religions, and the remainder are unaffiliated or follow other religions.[ref]“Religious Composition by Country, 2010-2050”, Pew Research Center, accessed March 2025 https://www.pewresearch.org/religion/feature/religious-composition-by-country-2010-2050/ [/ref] There is no specific indication of the number of non-religious people living in the country. Sudan is a member of the League of Arab States (LAS), as well as the Organization of Islamic Cooperation (OIC).

Constitution and government Education and children’s rights Family, community, society, religious courts and tribunals Freedom of expression advocacy of humanist values
State legislation is largely or entirely derived from religious law or by religious authorities
Government figures or state agencies openly marginalize, harass, or incite hatred or violence against the non-religious
It is illegal to register an explicitly Humanist, atheist, secularist or other non-religious NGO or other human rights organization, or such groups are persecuted by authorities
Expression of core Humanist principles on democracy, freedom and human rights is brutally repressed
Religious or ideological instruction is mandatory in all or most state-funded schools with no secular or humanist alternative
The non-religious are persecuted socially or there are prohibitive social taboos against atheism, humanism or secularism
Systemic religious privilege results in significant social discrimination
Government authorities push a socially conservative, religiously or ideologically inspired agenda, without regard to the rights of those with progressive views
Prohibitive interreligious social control (including interreligious marriage bans)
Religious control over family law or legislation on moral matters
‘Blasphemy’ is outlawed or criticism of religion (including de facto ‘blasphemy’ laws) is restricted and punishable with a prison sentence
Constitution and government
State legislation is largely or entirely derived from religious law or by religious authorities
Education and children’s rights
Religious or ideological instruction is mandatory in all or most state-funded schools with no secular or humanist alternative
Family, community, society, religious courts and tribunals
Government figures or state agencies openly marginalize, harass, or incite hatred or violence against the non-religious
It is illegal to register an explicitly Humanist, atheist, secularist or other non-religious NGO or other human rights organization, or such groups are persecuted by authorities
The non-religious are persecuted socially or there are prohibitive social taboos against atheism, humanism or secularism
Systemic religious privilege results in significant social discrimination
Government authorities push a socially conservative, religiously or ideologically inspired agenda, without regard to the rights of those with progressive views
Prohibitive interreligious social control (including interreligious marriage bans)
Religious control over family law or legislation on moral matters
Freedom of expression advocacy of humanist values
Expression of core Humanist principles on democracy, freedom and human rights is brutally repressed
‘Blasphemy’ is outlawed or criticism of religion (including de facto ‘blasphemy’ laws) is restricted and punishable with a prison sentence
The state is secular, with separation of religious and political authorities, not discriminating against any religion or belief
Insufficient information or detail not included in this report

Countries: no countries relate to this boundary condition

Religious or ideological instruction is mandatory in all or most state-funded schools with no secular or humanist alternative
Insufficient information or detail not included in this report

Countries: Angola, South Sudan, Tuvalu

Religious courts or tribunals rule directly on some family or ‘moral’ matters; it is legally an opt-in system, but the possibility of social coercion is very clear
Insufficient information or detail not included in this report
No fundamental restrictions on freedom of expression or advocacy of humanist values
Insufficient information or detail not included in this report

Countries: no countries relate to this boundary condition

No condition holds in this strand

Countries: Lesotho, Uzbekistan

No condition holds in this strand

Countries: Andorra

No condition holds in this strand
No condition holds in this strand

Countries: no countries relate to this boundary condition

Localised or infrequent but recurring and widespread social marginalisation or prejudice against the non-religious

This condition is unusual in that it is applied in cases where there is some social discrimination, but it is not pervasive or nationwide. This condition is applied when there is sufficient background evidence to warrant the assertion that discrimination is not anomalous but widespread, and this condition may be applied for example even where if there is no legislative discrimination or where the non-religious may have legal recourse against such discrimination. However, societal discrimination (i.e. discrimination by peers, as opposed to state or legal discrimination) is not easily measured, and for this reason the Report does not currently have similar more severe boundary conditions to capture higher levels of social discrimination per se. In principle these may be introduced in future. However, we consider that countries with actual higher levels of social discrimination against the non-religious will generally already meet other higher level (more severe) boundary conditions under this thematic strand.

Countries: Albania, Botswana, Greece, Serbia, United States of America

The dominant influence of religion in public life undermines the right to equality and/or non-discrimination

Applied when the influence of religion on public life undermines others’ rights, such as SRHR, women’s rights, LGBTI+ rights.

May be applied when the influence is overt (i.e. when religious laws are applied to undermine others’ rights) or covert (i.e. where religious pressure groups exert influence to affect policy)

Countries: Albania, Andorra, Antigua and Barbuda, Armenia, Bahamas, Belize, Bolivia, Brunei Darussalam, Burundi, Chile, Congo, Democratic Republic of, Côte d'Ivoire, Croatia, Cuba, Dominica, Dominican Republic, El Salvador, Eritrea, Eswatini, Fiji, Gambia, Ghana, Guatemala, Guinea, Hungary, Iran, Italy, Jamaica, Jordan, Liberia, Lithuania, Mali, Mexico, Moldova, Montenegro, Mozambique, Nicaragua, Nigeria, North Macedonia, Oman, Panama, Paraguay, Qatar, Romania, Russia, Saint Lucia, Saint Vincent and the Grenadines, Saudi Arabia, Senegal, Slovakia, Solomon Islands, Sri Lanka, Suriname, Timor-Leste (East Timor), Trinidad and Tobago, Ukraine, Zambia

Use of Conscientious Objection clauses resulting in the denial of lawful services to women and LGBTI+ people
Complete tyranny precludes all freedoms of expression and thought, religion or belief

Applied when overriding acts of oppression by the State are extreme, to the extent that the question of freedom of thought and expression is almost redundant, because all human rights and freedoms are quashed by authorities.

Countries: Afghanistan, North Korea

The non-religious are barred from some government offices (including posts reserved for particular religions or sects)
There is a nominal state church with few privileges or progress is being made toward disestablishment

Countries: Bulgaria, Norway, Peru, Rwanda

Religious or ideological indoctrination is utterly pervasive in schools
Expression of non-religious views is severely persecuted, or is rendered almost impossible by severe social stigma, or is highly likely to be met with hatred or violence
The non-religious are persecuted socially or there are prohibitive social taboos against atheism, humanism or secularism
There is significant social marginalisation of the non-religious or stigma associated with expressing atheism, humanism or secularism
Expression of core Humanist principles on democracy, freedom and human rights is brutally repressed
Religious authorities have supreme authority over the state

Countries: Iran

State legislation is partly derived from religious law or by religious authorities
Preferential treatment is given to a religion or religion in general

This condition is applied where there are miscellaneous indicators that organs of the state offer various forms of support for a religion, or to religion in general over non-religious worldviews, suggesting a preference for those beliefs, or that the organs of that religion are privileged.

Countries: Albania, Algeria, Andorra, Antigua and Barbuda, Argentina, Australia, Austria, Bahamas, Belize, Bhutan, Bolivia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Brazil, Burundi, Canada, Cape Verde, Colombia, Croatia, Cyprus, Czech Republic, Denmark, Dominican Republic, Equatorial Guinea, Eritrea, Ethiopia, Finland, Germany, Ghana, Guatemala, Guyana, Haiti, Iceland, India, Indonesia, Ireland, Israel, Italy, Jamaica, Japan, Kazakhstan, Kuwait, Kyrgyzstan, Liberia, Lithuania, Luxembourg, Madagascar, Malawi, Malaysia, Mali, Malta, Mauritania, Mauritius, Montenegro, Mozambique, Nepal, New Zealand, Nigeria, North Macedonia, Oman, Panama, Paraguay, Peru, Philippines, Poland, Portugal, Qatar, Romania, Rwanda, San Marino, Serbia, Seychelles, Sierra Leone, Singapore, Slovakia, Solomon Islands, Sri Lanka, Tajikistan, Tanzania, Timor-Leste (East Timor), Tunisia, Turkey, Tuvalu, United Kingdom, Vanuatu, Venezuela, Zimbabwe

Religious or ideological instruction in a significant number of schools is of a coercive fundamentalist or extremist variety

This condition highlights countries where schools subject children to fundamentalist religious instruction with no real opportunity to question fundamentalist tenets, or where lessons routinely encourage hatred (for example religious or ethnic hatred). The wording “significant number of schools” is not given a rigid quantification (sometimes the worst-offending schools are unregistered, illegal, or otherwise uncounted); however the condition is not applied in cases where only a small number of schools meet the description and may be anomalous, as opposed to being indicative of a widespread problem.

Countries: Bangladesh, Pakistan, Saudi Arabia

State-funded schools provide religious education which may be nominally comprehensive but is substantively biased or borderline confessional
There is a pattern of impunity or collusion in violence by non-state actors against the non-religious
Some religious courts rule in civil or family matters on a coercive or discriminatory basis
‘Apostasy’ or conversion from a specific religion is outlawed and punishable by death
‘Apostasy’ is outlawed and punishable with a prison sentence

Countries: Bahrain, Comoros, Jordan, Kuwait

State legislation is largely or entirely derived from religious law or by religious authorities
Anomalous discrimination by local or provincial authorities, or overseas territories
Religious or ideological instruction is mandatory in at least some public schools (without secular or humanist alternatives)
Government figures or state agencies openly marginalize, harass, or incite hatred or violence against the non-religious
Government authorities push a socially conservative, religiously or ideologically inspired agenda, without regard to the rights of those with progressive views
‘Blasphemy’ or criticism of religion is outlawed and punishable by death
Quasi-divine veneration of a ruling elite is enforced, or a single-party regime holds uncontested power, subject to severe punishment
Legal or constitutional provisions exclude non-religious views from freedom of religion or belief
It is illegal to register an explicitly Humanist, atheist, secularist or other non-religious NGO or other human rights organization, or such groups are persecuted by authorities
Prohibitive interreligious social control (including interreligious marriage bans)
It is illegal to advocate secularism or church-state separation, or such advocacy is suppressed
The non-religious are barred from holding government office
There is a religious tax or tithing which is compulsory, or which is state-administered and discriminates by precluding non-religious groups
It is illegal or unrecognised to identify as an atheist or as non-religious
Some concerns about children's right to specifically freedom of religion or belief

This condition may apply if specifically religious education, religious materials, or specific religious denominations are so tightly controlled that children are in fact over-protected from exposure to religion and are likely unable to explore or construct their own worldview in accordance with their evolving capacities. This condition helps us to classify states (perhaps with secular constitutions) which have criminalized specifically religious beliefs or practices. This condition is not applied if the restricted beliefs or practices are found to be outlawed due to their being of an extremist variety. While this condition does not directly reflect discrimination against non-religious persons or non-religious ideas, it does represent an overall threat to freedom of thought, conscience, religion or belief; such restrictions could spill over to affect non-religious beliefs later; and they pose a risk of backlash against over-zealous secular authorities or even against non-religious individuals by association.

Countries: China, Congo, Democratic Republic of, Cuba, Eritrea, Ethiopia, Guinea, Guyana, Italy, Kazakhstan, Laos, Madagascar, Mali, Mexico, North Macedonia, Romania, Serbia, Tajikistan, Togo, Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan, Viet Nam, Zimbabwe

It is made difficult to register or operate an explicitly Humanist, atheist, secularist or other non-religious NGO or other human rights organization
Legend
 
Grave Violations
Severe Discrimination
More information about rating table

Constitution and government

Political situation

President Omar al-Bashir, who came to power through a military coup in 1989, was ousted in 2019 following months of civilian protests against his rule.[ref]Stephen Zunes, Sudan’s 2019 Revolution: The Power of Civil Resistance, International Center on Nonviolent Conflict, Vol 5, April 2021 https://www.nonviolent-conflict.org/wp-content/uploads/2021/04/Zunes-Sudans-2019-Revolution.pdf [/ref] He was convicted of corruption charges by a Sudanese court and is wanted by the International Criminal Court (ICC) to stand trial for genocide, crimes against humanity, and war crimes over Sudan’s military campaign in Darfur. As of September 2024, due to his health deterioration, he was transferred to a medical facility in northern Sudan after being held in a military facility since the war broke in April 2023.[ref]Samy Magdy, “Sudan’s jailed former strongman Omar al-Bashir is taken to a hospital in the north for better care”, Associated Press, 25 September 2024 https://apnews.com/article/sudan-war-al-bashir-darfur-military-rsf-3486ebe1f9c563ae46d7fc38ca204bb9 [/ref]

After the overthrow of former president Omar al-Bashir, Sudan embarked on a political transition aiming to dismantle some of the hardline Islamist policies through democratic civilian rule.[ref]Dame Rosalind Marsden, “Can Sudan Achieve Peace and Democratic Transition?” Chatham House, updated 14 November 2024 https://www.chathamhouse.org/2019/08/can-sudan-achieve-peace-and-democratic-transition [/ref] As part of a power-sharing deal between the ruling Transitional Military Council (TMC) and the opposition Forces for Freedom and Change (FFC) coalition, an 11-member sovereign council composed of six civilians and five military officers was appointed to govern the country for a three-year transition period (until 2022).[ref]Mohamed Amin, “ PROFILE: Members of Sudan’s ‘sovereign council”, Andalou Ajansi, 21 August 2019 https://www.aa.com.tr/en/africa/profile-members-of-sudans-sovereign-council/1561302 [/ref] However, in October 2021, the commander of the Sudanese Armed Forces (SAF), Lieutenant General Abdel Fattah al-Burhan, seized power, dissolving the transitional government and arresting civilian leaders. This move led to nationwide protests and international condemnation.[ref]Yezid Sayigh, “The Military Has Taken Power in Sudan and Dissolved Its Transitional Government”, Diwan: Carnegie Middle East Center, 26 October 2021 https://carnegieendowment.org/middle-east/diwan/2021/10/the-military-has-taken-power-in-sudan-and-dissolved-its-transitional-government?lang=en [/ref] In April 2023, fighting erupted between the SAF and the paramilitary Rapid Support Forces (RSF), notorious for their role in the ethnic cleansing of non-Arab civilians in Darfur. The fighting between the two factions resulted in mass killing and reports of ethnic-based atrocities.[ref]“Fighting in Sudan: What you need to know about the crisis”, International Rescue Committee, updated 13 August 2024 https://www.rescue.org/eu/article/fighting-sudan-what-you-need-know-about-crisis [/ref]

As of February 2025, Sudan remains embroiled in civil war, displacing over 12 million people and starving half the population. While the SAF, under General al-Burhan, has recently declared a “turning point” in the conflict after recapturing strategic locations from the RSF, the RSF continues to control significant territories, and peace negotiations have stalled at the time of writing.[ref] Eltayeb Siddig, “After whirlwind gains, Sudanese military leaders hail ‘turning point’”, Reuters, 27 January 2025 https://www.reuters.com/world/africa/after-whirlwind-gains-sudanese-military-leaders-hail-turning-point-2025-01-27/ [/ref] 

Progress stalled

Following al-Bashir’s ousting, the TMC and the FFC signed an interim constitutional declaration (the “2019 Declaration”).[ref]“Officially signing the Constitutional Declaration Document”, Sudan Daily, 19 September 2019 https://perma.cc/K78K-FDGY [/ref] The 2019 Declaration contains several provisions protecting the right to freedom of religious belief and worship “in accordance with the requirements of the law and public order.” It repeals the Transitional Constitution of 2005 and the constitutions of all Sudanese provinces.[ref]Sudan Constitutional Declaration, August 2019, ConstitutionNet, accessed March 2025 https://constitutionnet.org/vl/item/sudan-constitutional-declaration-august-2019 [/ref] However, laws promulgated pursuant to the 2005 Constitution will remain in effect until such time as they are abolished or new laws are passed repealing them.

A raft of legal amendments were passed in July 2020 in order to bring the country’s laws in line with the democratic ideals of the 2019 Declaration. These include amendments to abolish the crime of apostasy;[ref]“Sudan scraps apostasy law and alcohol ban for non-Muslims”, BBC, 12 July 2020 https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-53379733 [/ref] to end the death penalty and flogging for same-sex relationships (but keeping a possible sentence of prison terms ranging from five years to life);[ref]“Activists call on Sudan to decriminalise gay sex after repealing death penalty, flogging”, The New Arab, 17 July 2020 https://www.newarab.com/news/sudan-drops-death-penalty-flogging-gay-sex [/ref] to permit children to travel with their mothers without permission from male members of their family; to ban female genital mutilation (FGM); to repeal some laws restricting women’s dress; and to allow consumption of alcohol for non-Muslims.[ref]Mohammed Amin, “Sudan drops Islamic social laws in historic move sparking joy and fury”, Middle East Eye, 17 July 2020 https://www.middleeasteye.net/news/sudan-islamic-laws-alcohol-apostasy-dropped-reactions [/ref]

While many in Sudan celebrated the reforms, loyalists of al-Bashir and Sudan’s Islamic parties, including the Popular Congress Party (PCP), denounced them. Famous Sudanese cleric Abdul Hai Youssef called for “jihad” against Hamdok’s government, stating that “bringing down this government, which has legalised apostasy and other wrongdoings, is a duty for any Muslim.”[ref]Mohammed Amin, “Sudan drops Islamic social laws in historic move sparking joy and fury”, Middle East Eye, 17 July 2020 https://www.middleeasteye.net/news/sudan-islamic-laws-alcohol-apostasy-dropped-reactions [/ref] In March 2020, an unsuccessful assassination attempt was carried out against Prime Minister Hamdok, who was widely seen to be leading the reforms.[ref]“Sudan PM Abdalla Hamdok survives assassination attempt”, BBC, 9 March 2020 https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-51800278 [/ref]

In September 2020, the transitional government agreed to end 30 years of Islamic rule by signing a declaration adopting the principle of secularism. The declaration stated that:

“[f]or Sudan to become a democratic country where the rights of all citizens are enshrined, the constitution should be based on the principle of ‘separation of religion and state,’ in the absence of which the right to self-determination must be respected.”[ref]Mohmmed Alamin, “Sudan Ends 30 Years of Islamic Law by Separating Religion, State”, Bloomberg, 4 September 2020 https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2020-09-04/sudan-ends-30-years-of-islamic-law-by-separating-religion-state [/ref]

In October 2021, the military coup under Abdel Fattah al-Burhan led Sudan to be under military control with limited civilian governance. Although Prime Minister Abdalla Hamdok was reinstated in November of the same year, he resigned in January 2022.[ref]Sudan: Freedom in the World 2023, Freedom House, accessed March 2025 https://freedomhouse.org/country/sudan/freedom-world/2023 [/ref] Despite the drafting of a Framework Political Agreement at the end of 2022, which contained a commitment for the government to protect freedom of religion and belief, the subsequent instability has led to stalemate in the implementation of these reforms and agreements.[ref]2023 Report on International Religious Freedom: Sudan, US Department of State, accessed March 2025 https://www.state.gov/reports/2023-report-on-international-religious-freedom/sudan/ [/ref]

Registration of religious groups

Responsibility for regulating Islamic religious practice, supervising churches, and guaranteeing equal treatment for all religious groups sits with the Ministry of Religious Affairs (MRA). To gain official recognition religious groups must register with the MRA.[ref]2023 Report on International Religious Freedom: Sudan, US Department of State, accessed March 2025 https://www.state.gov/reports/2023-report-on-international-religious-freedom/sudan/ [/ref]

Non-governmental and nonprofit organizations are overseen by the Humanitarian Aid Commission. Religious groups that undertake humanitarian or development activities must register as nonprofit NGOs by filing a standard application required by the Commission. Only registered NGOs are eligible to apply for other administrative benefits, including land ownership, tax exemptions, and work permits.[ref]2023 Report on International Religious Freedom: Sudan, US Department of State, accessed March 2025 https://www.state.gov/reports/2023-report-on-international-religious-freedom/sudan/ [/ref]

Education and children’s rights

The national curriculum requires that all students receive religious instruction. All schools are required to teach Islamic education classes, from pre-school up until the second year of university. The law does not require non-Muslims to attend Islamic education classes and these students usually attend religious study classes of their own religion outside school hours. Public schools should provide Christian religious instruction if there are at least 15 Christian students in a class.[ref] 2023 Report on International Religious Freedom: Sudan, US Department of State, accessed March 2025 https://www.state.gov/reports/2023-report-on-international-religious-freedom/sudan/ [/ref] However, this requirement is not fulfilled in practice and it has been reported that in some areas Christian students are forced to attend Islamic education classes to meet the religious instruction requirement and receive their certificate.[ref]“Hopes wilt for teaching Christianity in Sudan Schools”, Eternity News, 22 June 2020 https://www.eternitynews.com.au/world/hopes-wilt-for-teaching-christianity-in-sudan-schools/ [/ref] There are no secular alternatives provided for students to opt out of religious instruction altogether. Former Minister of Religious Affairs, Nasreldeen Mohammed, had planned to create approximately 300 positions for Christian teachers, but the 2021 coup and subsequent war have thwarted the reform.[ref]2023 Report on International Religious Freedom: Sudan, US Department of State, accessed March 2025 https://www.state.gov/reports/2023-report-on-international-religious-freedom/sudan/ [/ref]

In January 2020, the Ministry of Education had also announced that pre-school students would no longer be required to learn the Quran in school.[ref]“Sudan eliminates Qur’an learning for younger pupils”, Middle East Monitor, 9 January 2020 https://www.middleeastmonitor.com/20200109-sudan-eliminates-quran-learning-for-younger-pupils/ [/ref]The transitional government also suspended a law that required Christian schools to conduct classes on Sundays.[ref] “Joint Statement on Sudan”, Government of the Netherlands, 26 August 2020, accessed March 2025 https://www.government.nl/documents/diplomatic-statements/2020/08/26/joint-statement-on-sudan [/ref]

Given the current political instability in the country, it is unclear how far the letter of the law is applied in practice.

Child Marriage

The legal age of marriage for girls in Sudan is 10 years old, and it is estimated that a third of the female population between 20-24 is married before the age of 18.[ref]Summary of Stakeholders’ submissions on Sudan, Human Rights Council Working Group on the Universal Periodic Review ,Thirty-ninth session 1–12 November 2021 https://docs.un.org/en/A/HRC/WG.6/39/SDN/3;
“Sudan Profile”,The Child Marriage Data Portal, accessed March 2025 https://childmarriagedata.org/country-profiles/sudan/ [/ref] A report published by UNICEF in 2017, claims that many religious leaders believe that child marriage is part of Islamic principles and are therefore resistant to change. However, the report also points to examples of receptive religious leaders in the country, including a religious scholar who did a calculation to prove that the Prophet Mohammed married his wife when she was 17 or 18 years old and not 9 years as is sometimes claimed.[ref]‘Child Marriage in the Middle East and North Africa – Sudan Country Brief’, United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF) Middle East and North Africa Regional Office in collaboration with the International Center for Research on Women (IRCW), 2017, https://www.unicef.org/mena/media/1816/file/MENA-CMReport-SudanBrief.pdf.pdf [/ref]

Family, community and society

Laws concerning personal and family matters, which were adopted during the Bashir administration remain largely in effect and are based on Sharia law. The Criminal Code[ref]Sudanese Official Gazette, Law No.12 2020 https://perma.cc/MAJ8-B5SM [/ref] states that the law shall be based on Sharia sources and include hudud, qisas, and diyah principles (regarding punishment, restitution, and compensation for specific serious crimes). The law takes into consideration various Sharia schools of jurisprudence (madhahib) and a Panel of Islamic Scholars and Preachers (Fiqh Council) are responsible for explaining and interpreting the laws and determining under which conditions a particular school of thought applies. The scope of the Fiqh Council mandate has remained unclear since the ousting of Bashir.[ref]2023 Report on International Religious Freedom: Sudan, US Department of State, accessed March 2025 https://www.state.gov/reports/2023-report-on-international-religious-freedom/sudan/ [/ref]

Discrimination against ethnic and religious minorities

Under al-Bashir, Christians in Sudan were persecuted and churches were forcibly shut down or destroyed, often under the pretext that they lacked proper building permits.[ref]“Joint Statement on Sudan”, Government of the Netherlands, 26 August 2020, accessed March 2025 https://www.government.nl/documents/diplomatic-statements/2020/08/26/joint-statement-on-sudan [/ref]

In September 2019, Prime Minister Hamdok stated that his administration would address “religious discrimination,” and the Minister of Religion invited Jews and Christians who had left the country to return. However, religious discrimination remains prevalent in Sudan, as many laws concerning personal and family affairs adopted during al-Bashir’s administration largely remain in effect. For example, while Muslim men are allowed to marry Christian or Jewish women, a Muslim woman cannot marry a non-Muslim man.

The implementation of criminal and civil law in terms of penalties imposed can depend upon the religion of the perpetrator. For example, while Muslims might be punished with lashes if caught producing or consuming alcohol, Christians are typically not punished if caught for the same crime. The Minister of Justice has the power to release any prisoner who memorizes the Quran during his prison term.[ref]2023 Report on International Religious Freedom: Sudan, US Department of State, accessed March 2025 https://www.state.gov/reports/2023-report-on-international-religious-freedom/sudan/ [/ref]

In December 2019, the transitional government declared Christmas a national holiday, and court proceedings were initiated to return land confiscated by the previous regime back to Christian communities.[ref]2023 Report on International Religious Freedom: Sudan, US Department of State, accessed March 2025 https://www.state.gov/reports/2023-report-on-international-religious-freedom/sudan/ [/ref]

Despite the 2020 agreements, and even before war broke out in 2023, incidents of ethnic violence across the country were rife. Hundreds of people died and hundreds of thousands were displaced during conflicts between tribes in the Blue Nile, Kordofan, and Darfur areas. Government responses sometimes worsened the humanitarian situation, with arbitrary detentions and abductions by security forces.[ref]Sudan: Freedom in the World 2024, Freedom House, accessed March 2025 https://freedomhouse.org/country/sudan/freedom-world/2024 [/ref]

According to Freedom House:

“Since the start of the 2023 war, the RSF and allied militias have carried out brutal attacks on non-Arab populations in Darfur, particularly the Massalit, in an attempt to expel those groups from certain areas, such as the city of El-Geneina. Reports indicated that more than 10,000 people had been killed by late 2023, while hundreds of thousands fled the region. Sexual violence against women and girls in Darfur was pervasive. The RSF also reportedly burned neighborhoods, health clinics, and humanitarian aid offices, preventing survivors of the attacks from accessing help. Violence against civilians based on their ethnic origin intensified in October, when the RSF started gaining more territory in the region, and continued through year’s end.”[ref]Sudan: Freedom in the World 2024, Freedom House, accessed March 2025 https://freedomhouse.org/country/sudan/freedom-world/2024 [/ref]

There is little information available on the experience of atheists in Sudan, however some accounts describe severe social stigma and threats of violent attack.[ref]“From Sudan to Kenya: A Secular Rescue Success Story”, Secular Rescue, 12 June 2019 https://secular-rescue.org/from-sudan-to-kenya-a-secular-rescue-success-story/ [/ref] This would be consistent with violence faced by other minority belief groups detailed above.

Women’s Rights

Women were fundamental to the protests that contributed to the 2019 ousting of President al-Bashir whose regime had severely suppressed women’s rights.[ref]Rogaia Abusharaf, “The women of Sudan will not accept setbacks”, Brookings, 3 March 2022 https://www.brookings.edu/articles/the-women-of-sudan-will-not-accept-setbacks/ [/ref] The current conflict has, however, halted some of the progress that was starting to be seen in a country where leaders have long used religious laws to exert control over women.[ref]Ellen Johnson Sirleaf, “Do not ignore the suffering of Sudanese women” Aljazeera, 24 November 2023 https://www.aljazeera.com/opinions/2023/11/24/do-not-ignore-the-suffering-of-sudanese-women;
Khadija Khan, “Women’s rights violations in Sudan”, FiLiA Women’s Rights Conference, 30 August 2023 https://www.filia.org.uk/latest-news/2023/8/30/womens-rights-violations-in-sudan ;
Samia al-Nagar and Liv Tønnessen (2018), “Family law reform in Sudan: A never ending story?”, Chr. Michelsen Institute, CMI Brief no. 2018:08 https://www.cmi.no/publications/6581-family-law-reform-in-sudan-a-never-ending-story [/ref] In what is an extremely patriarchal society, women are again the victims of further waves of violence and brutality including extremely high levels of sexual violence and exploitation.[ref]“Women and girls in Sudan disproportionately impacted by ongoing conflict”, UN News, 27 September 2024 https://news.un.org/en/story/2024/09/1155056;
Human Rights in Sudan: 2023 report, Amnesty International, accessed March 2025 https://www.amnesty.org/en/location/africa/east-africa-the-horn-and-great-lakes/sudan/report-sudan/ [/ref]

Female Genital Mutilation (FGM)

Despite Sudan’s legal ban on FGM in 2020, women and girls remain highly vulnerable to the practice, and even more so in the context of conflict, displacement and humanitarian crisis.[ref]Paleki Ayang, “Female Genital Mutilation Continues Amid Sudan’s Conflict and Forced Displacement”, reliefweb, 27 February 2024 https://reliefweb.int/report/sudan/female-genital-mutilation-continues-amid-sudans-conflict-and-forced-displacement [/ref]

According to UNICEF, almost 89% of women in Sudan have undergone FGM, although support for the practice is slowly starting to decline. Reasons given by women to justify the continuation of the practice were, “cleanliness (purity), social acceptance, better marriage prospects, chastity, and sexual attraction to male partners”.[ref]Female Genital Mutilation in Sudan: Factsheet, UNICEF, accessed March 2025 https://www.unicef.org/sudan/media/9386/file/FGM%20Factsheet-FINAL.pdf [/ref]

Religious leaders have shown a varied response to initiatives seeking to abolish the practice. A Women’s Studies International Forum report argues that gaining support from religious leaders on this issue has depended on the composition of their power base and their inclusion in or exclusion from the process.[ref]Samia al-Nagar and Liv Tønnessen, “Politicization of international aid: Religious responses to criminalizing female genital mutilation in Sudan”, Women’s Studies International Forum, Vol 105, July-August 2024 https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0277539524000815 [/ref]

LGBTI+ Rights

Same-sex sexual activity is illegal in Sudan and currently carries a penalty of five years imprisonment, which can extend to life imprisonment in the case of a third conviction. The possibility of capital or corporal punishment was removed when the Penal Code was amended in 2020.[ref] “Sudan Country Profile”, Human Dignity Trust, updated 17 December 2024 https://www.humandignitytrust.org/country-profile/sudan/ [/ref]

LGBTI+ individuals face serious threats of harassment or attack in a highly conservative and religious society that is overwhelmingly opposed to LGBTI+ rights.[ref]Zee Hamid, “A story of me: Being queer in North Sudan”, Minority Africa, 7 July 2023 https://minorityafrica.org/a-story-of-me-being-queer-in-north-sudan/ [/ref]

Freedom of expression, advocacy of humanist values

Media freedoms

Media freedoms were heavily restricted during al-Bashir’s rule, characterized by institutionalized censorship, mass arrests of journalists, and raids on newspapers and printing presses. While there were improvements under the new 2019 government, Reporters Without Borders reported that, while the government had committed to freedom of expression, censorship was exercised more discreetly. Most political newspapers continued to be affiliated with or close to supporters of the former regime.[ref]“Sudan still awaits its press freedom revolution”, Reporters Without Borders, 3 December 2019 https://rsf.org/en/sudan-still-awaits-its-press-freedom-revolution [/ref]

Moreover, the 2008 Cybercrime Act, the 2009 Press and Publications Act, and the 2010 National Security Forces Act, all of which were used in the past to target critics and activists, remain in effect.[ref]Mohamed Osman, “Sudan’s Army Threatens Activists, Journalists with Lawsuits”, Human Rights Watch, 24 July 2020 https://www.hrw.org/news/2020/07/24/sudans-army-threatens-activists-journalists-lawsuits [/ref]

Reporters Without Borders reports that the 2021 military coup reinstated censorship and that since the start of the 2023 conflict attacks on journalists have surged, forcing many to flee abroad.[ref]“Sudan”, Reporters Without Borders, accessed March 2025 https://rsf.org/en/country/sudan [/ref]

Today, State-controlled media dominate Sudan’s information landscape, serving as government mouthpieces. Since the 2021 coup, repression has intensified with journalist arrests, Internet shutdowns, and military propaganda. The civil war has further crippled the media, forcing many outlets to close.[ref]“Sudan”, Reporters Without Borders, accessed March 2025 https://rsf.org/en/country/sudan [/ref]

Sudan’s multicultural society faces growing intolerance, with rising ethnic tensions and media scrutiny. Religious groups influence journalism, while social media, once a platform for free expression, now fuels racism and misogyny, targeting women and minorities. Journalists in Sudan face growing threats from militias, the army, and the RSF, enduring arrests and torture. Women journalists are the most targeted.[ref]“Sudan”, Reporters Without Borders, accessed March 2025 https://rsf.org/en/country/sudan [/ref]

“Apostasy” and “blasphemy”

During al-Bashir’s reign there were many high-profile cases of apostasy.[ref]“Sudanese activist accused of apostasy released after psychiatric examination”, The New Arab, 13 May 2017 https://www.newarab.com/news/sudanese-activist-accused-apostasy-released-after-psychiatric-examination; “Meriam Ibrahim freed from death row in Sudan”, Amnesty International, 12 January 2018 https://www.amnesty.org.uk/meriam-ibrahim-freed-death-row-sudan-apostasy-pregnant-mother [/ref] In July 2020, apostasy was decriminalized, and replaced by a new provision prohibiting the labeling of any group of individuals as “infidels.”[ref]“Sudanese judge dismisses apostasy charges against 4 Christians: No longer a crime in Sudan”, Christian Post, 18 September 2018 https://www.christianpost.com/news/sudan-dismisses-apostasy-charges-against-christians.html [/ref]

In July 2022, four Christian men in Darfur were accused of “apostasy” following a church raid, even though the law against converting from Islam had been abolished.[ref]“Four Christians accused of apostasy in Sudan”, Open Doors, 27 July 2022 https://www.opendoorsuk.org/news/latest-news/sudan-apostasy/ [/ref] After reportedly being subjected to police harassment and inhumane and degrading treatment, as well as a legal ordeal, the General Prosecutor in Central Darfur dismissed the case in September of the same year.[ref]“Apostasy case dismissed by prosecutor”, CSW, 9 September 2022 https://www.csw.org.uk/2022/09/09/press/5812/article [/ref]

“Blasphemy” remains a criminal offense; however, the provision has been amended. Prior to the amendment, Article 125 of the Penal Code stated:

“Whoever, by any means, publicly abuses or insults any of the religions, rites, or beliefs, or sanctities, or seeks to excite feelings of contempt and disrespect against the believers thereof, shall be punished with imprisonment for a term not exceeding one year, or with a fine, or with whipping, which may not exceed forty lashes.”[ref]Mohamed Salih Aldsogi, “On Apostasy and Blasphemy in Sudan”, Center for Inquiry, 28 September 2018 https://centerforinquiry.org/blog/on-apostasy-and-blasphemy-in-sudan/ [/ref]

The new law abolishes the penalty of whipping, and the period of imprisonment is limited to six months.[ref]Ms Karuna Nundy, “On Religious Freedom and Discontent: Report on International Standards and Blasphemy Laws”, International Bar Association Human Rights Institute, May 2023 https://mediafreedomcoalition.org/wp-content/uploads/2023/05/HLP-Blasphemy-Laws-report-2023.pdf;“Sudan”, End Blasphemy Laws, accessed March 2025 https://end-blasphemy-laws.org/countries/middle-east-and-north-africa/sudan/#:~:text=While%20%27blasphemy%27%20is%20still%20punishable,is%20limited%20to%20six%20months [/ref] In November 2024, reports indicate that many Christians are still serving long jail terms related to blasphemy charges, despite the 2020 legal changes.[ref]Ngala Killian Chimtom, “Sudanese Christians caught in civil war persecution”, The Tablet, 1 November 2024 https://www.thetablet.co.uk/news/sudanese-christians-caught-in-civil-war-persecution/ [/ref]

Freedom of Assembly

After 2019, the transitional government eased restrictions on NGOs making it possible for them to register. In light of the ongoing conflict and subsequent obstacles to registration faced by many NGOs, the Humanitarian Aid Commission issued a decree extending the validity of expired registrations to March 2024.[ref]Sudan: Freedom in the World 2024, Freedom House, accessed March 2025 https://freedomhouse.org/country/sudan/freedom-world/2024 [/ref] Reports indicate that there has been an increasing level of attacks on human rights groups and women human rights defenders in particular since the start of the current hostilities.[ref]“Sudan: Rising Attacks against WHRDs and Women’s Rights Groups”, OMCT, 14 February 2024 https://www.omct.org/en/resources/statements/sudan-rising-attacks-against-whrds-and-womens-rights-groups [/ref]

Anti-government protests, which began in December 2018, were violently suppressed by State security forces, who attacked protesters wherever they congregated, including outside mosques, hospitals, and schools. Serious violations reported during the protests include the use of torture and other inhuman, degrading treatment; sexual and gender-based violence; and attempts by the state to limit information about events on the ground by shutting down the internet and communications networks.[ref]“Sudan: all security agencies were involved in brutal protest attacks – and must be held to account”, Amnesty International, 10 March 2020 https://www.amnesty.org.uk/press-releases/sudan-all-security-agencies-were-involved-brutal-protest-attacks-and-must-be-held [/ref] While the transitional government committed to holding those responsible for the violence to account, it failed to release the findings from its investigation and bring charges against officials. Human Rights Watch found that at least 120 people had been killed and more than 900 injured between 3-18 June 2019, while Sudanese officials estimated that at least 64 women were raped and others sexually assaulted.[ref]“Sudan: Justice for June 3 Crackdown Delayed”, Human Rights Watch, 2 June 2020 https://www.hrw.org/news/2020/06/02/sudan-justice-june-3-crackdown-delayed [/ref]

In 2022, security forces violently suppressed protests, killing and injuring protesters, and blocking roads and bridges to prevent gatherings in key locations.[ref]2023 Report on International Religious Freedom: Sudan, US Department of State, accessed March 2025 https://www.state.gov/reports/2023-report-on-international-religious-freedom/sudan/ [/ref] Throughout 2023, the Sudanese government, SAF, RSF, and allied militias were responsible for numerous extrajudicial killings. In February, security forces killed a 16-year-old protester with a police officer indicted for murder.[ref]2023 Report on International Religious Freedom: Sudan, US Department of State, accessed March 2025 https://www.state.gov/reports/2023-report-on-international-religious-freedom/sudan/ [/ref]