Kazakhstan
The Republic of Kazakhstan is the largest state in Central Asia with a small portion extending into Eastern Europe. Kazakhstan is a unitary state with the president at its helm holding significant executive power, which includes appointing key government officials and guiding national policies.1Official website of the President of the Republic of Kazakhstan, accessed January 2025 https://www.akorda.kz/en/republic_of_kazakhstan/kazakhstan The country declared independence from the Soviet Union in 1991 and was led by President Nursultan Nazarbayev up until his resignation in 2019. Since then, it has undergone several political reforms, including constitutional changes in 2022, under the current president Kassym-Jomart Kemeluly Tokayev.2Dimash Alzhanov, “Kazakhstan’s referendum: regime consolidation instead of genuine political reforms”, Constitutionnet, 28 July 2022 https://constitutionnet.org/news/kazakhstans-referendum-regime-consolidation-instead-genuine-political-reforms
Kazakhstan’s population stands at over 20 million people,3“Population of the Republic of Kazakhstan by gender and type of locality (at the beginning of 2024)”, Bureau of National Statistics, accessed January 2025 https://stat.gov.kz/en/industries/social-statistics/demography/publications/157662/ with ethnic Kazakhs comprising the majority, followed by sizable Russian, Uzbek, and Ukrainian minorities.4Results of the National Population Census 2021, Bureau for National Statistics https://stat.gov.kz/en/national/2021/ The 2021 census recorded the population as being 69.3% Muslim, 17.2% Christian (mainly Russian Orthodox), less than 5% other religions and 2.3% atheists. However, over 11% of the surveyed population did not specify their religion. A 2019 study by the Kazakhstan Institute for Strategic Studies, a government-affiliated think tank, estimated atheists and non-believers to constitute 18.7% of the population.52023 Report on International Religious Freedom: Kazakhstan, US Department of State, accessed January 2025 https://www.state.gov/reports/2023-report-on-international-religious-freedom/kazakhstan/
Kazakhstan is a member of the Organization of Islamic Cooperation (OIC) as well as other organizations, including the Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe (OSCE), and the Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS).6“Kazakhstan country brief”, Australian Government Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade, accessed January 2025 https://www.dfat.gov.au/geo/kazakhstan/kazakhstan-country-brief
| Constitution and government | Education and children’s rights | Family, community, society, religious courts and tribunals | Freedom of expression advocacy of humanist values |
|---|---|---|---|
Constitution and government
Article 22 of Kazakhstan’s Constitution7 Constitution of the Republic of Kazakhstan, Official website of the President of the Republic of Kazakhstan, accessed January 2025 https://www.akorda.kz/en/constitution-of-the-republic-of-kazakhstan-50912 explicitly states that “everyone shall have the right to freedom of conscience”, while article 39 adds that the rights and freedoms provided by article 22, among others, “may not be restricted in any way”, including for political reasons.
The Constitution also articulates freedom of expression (article 20), no discrimination “on the grounds of (…) attitude to religion” (article 14), and “the right to choose and to declare and not to declare (…) religious affiliation” (article 19).
Regardless of this, the State’s approach includes regulation, control, and penalization of religious expression and activities among individuals and groups considered “non-traditional”.8Kazakhstan 2022 International Religious Freedom Report, U.S. Embassy & Consulate in Kazakhstan, accessed January 2025 https://kz.usembassy.gov/wp-content/uploads/sites/90/2023/05/441219-KAZAKHSTAN-2022-INTERNATIONAL-RELIGIOUS-FREEDOM-REPORT.pdf
While the number of atheists in Kazakhstan continues to rise and, according to some studies, has tripled in the last ten years, there are some concerns that people may prefer to indicate they are atheists to avoid getting into trouble with the government, which continues to intimidate and restrict people from non-traditional and minority religions through various means.9“People Without Religion. Number of Atheists Grows in Kazakhstan”, Central Asian Bureau for Analytical Reporting, 27 August 2019 https://cabar.asia/en/people-without-religion-number-of-atheists-grows-in-kazakhstan
Law on Religious Activity and Religious Associations
Kazakhstan introduced the “Law on Religious Activity and Religious Associations” in 2011.10Law No. 482-IV, on Religious Activities and Religious Associations, Unofficial Translation, refworld, https://www.refworld.org/legal/legislation/natlegbod/2011/en/122796 The preamble to the law acknowledges the historical role of Hanafi Islam and the Russian Orthodox Church, regarded as “traditional” religions that have been present on Kazakh territory for many centuries. This is in contrast to the “new” or “non-traditional” religions and denominations, which authorities continue to discriminate against and treat with suspicion.11Svante E. Cornell, S. Frederick Starr, Julian Tucker, Religion and the Secular
State in Kazakhstan, Central Asia-Caucasus Institute & Silk Road Studies Program, American Foreign Policy Council & Institute for Security and Development Policy, April 2018 https://silkroadstudies.org/resources/pdf/SilkRoadPapers/2018-04-Kazakhstan-Secularism.pdf
The law enforces stringent registration requirements for religious organizations, and bans or restricts unregistered religious activities or those that fail to meet minimum membership figures quota requirements, enabling the State to control minority religious groups and punish unauthorized religious or political activity. Pursuant to the law, authorities continue to surveil, fine, detain, arrest and imprison individuals on account of their religious beliefs or affiliations and restrict assembly for peaceful religious activity.122023 Report on International Religious Freedom: Kazakhstan, US Department of State, accessed January 2025 https://www.state.gov/reports/2023-report-on-international-religious-freedom/kazakhstan/
In January 2022, amendments to the 2011 law came into effect, widening State religious censorship and restricting holding of religious gatherings and activities, such as pilgrimages, away from State-registered places of religious worship.13Kazakhstan: Religious freedom survey, Forum 18, 23 June 2022 https://www.forum18.org/archive.php?article_id=2753
Persecution of minorities
According to the US Commission on International Religious Freedom (USCIRF), Sunni Muslims in Kazakhstan who do not subscribe to the State-sanctioned (Hanafi) form of Islam are often targeted. There have been crackdowns on peaceful online religious activities that the authorities have described as “public calls for terrorism” or “incitement of religious discord”. People who have written posts expressing religious views and commenting on religious texts and sermons have received fines and even prison sentences. At least seven Muslim prisoners of conscience remained imprisoned in Kazakhstan in 2024, convicted for their peaceful online religious activities.14FoRB Victims List Profil – Kazakhstan, USCIRF, updated March 2024 https://www.uscirf.gov/sites/default/files/Kazakhstan%20FoRB%20Victims%20List%2003-2024.pdf
Three of these individuals—Nazim Abdrakhmanov, Bolatbek Nurgaliyev, and Samat Adilov— who participated in an online WhatsApp group on Islam, were released in 2023, two years after the United Nations Working Group on Arbitrary Detention called for their release in September 2021. However, two others from the same group were still incarcerated by the end of the year.
In May 2023, authorities retaliated against Zhandos Saduakasov, a religious activist, who was involved in planning the construction of a mosque. Saduakasov faced government interference after advocating for free and fair elections.15KaUSCIRF-Recommended for Special Watchlist, US Commission on International Religious Freedom 2024 https://www.uscirf.gov/sites/default/files/2024-05/Kazakhstan%202024.pdf
Jehovah’s Witness, Daniil Smal, was forcibly conscripted by the district conscription office in May 2023, despite his conscientious objection on religious grounds. After spending months in detention, Smal challenged his conscription in court, and in August, the Military Court of the Almaty Garrison ruled it illegal, leading to his release.16Daniil Smal, US Commission on International Religious Freedom, accessed January 2025 https://www.uscirf.gov/religious-prisoners-conscience/forb-victims-database/daniil-smal
Education and children’s rights
Kazakhstan’s education system is strictly secular and does not allow for religious education in public schools, colleges, or universities. Homeschooling for religious reasons is also prohibited. Religious instruction outside of school is only permitted if a registered religious group provides it.172023 Report on International Religious Freedom: Kazakhstan, US Department of State, accessed January 2025 https://www.state.gov/reports/2023-report-on-international-religious-freedom/kazakhstan/
In January 2016, the Ministry of Education passed a decree banning the wearing of the hijab by teachers and students in schools below university level.18Order of the Minister of Education and Science of the Republic of Kazakhstan dated January 14, 2016, Ministry of Justice of the Republic of Kazakhstan, accessed January 2025 https://adilet.zan.kz/rus/docs/V1600013085
In October 2023, the Kazakh government introduced the ban on hijab at schools as a formal law.19Anatolij Weisskopf, “Kazakhstan announces ban on hijabs in schools”, 22 October 2023 https://www.dw.com/en/kazakhstan-announces-ban-on-hijabs-in-schools/a-67175196 Since then, girls wearing a headscarf at school have been denied education and parents have had civil suits filed against them for failing to carry out their responsibility in ensuring adherence to the law.20“My headscarf is simply a part of me”: the Kazakh schoolgirls fighting for the right to wear the hijab”, BBC News Russian, 6 February 2024 https://bbcrussian.substack.com/p/kazakhstan-hijab-ban-in-schools Parents’ attempts to challenge the State have remained unsuccessful.21 Kazakhstan: Parents challenge schoolgirl headscarf ban”, Forum 18, 20 April 2018 https://webarchive.archive.unhcr.org/20230519031023/https://www.refworld.org/docid/5af009144.html
Child marriage
Kazakhstan’s Code On Marriage and Family,22Kazakhstan Code on Marriage (Matrimony) and Family, Ministry of Justice of the Republic of Kazakhstan, accessed January 2025
https://adilet.zan.kz/eng/docs/K1100000518 introduced in 2011 and amended in 2014, establishes the minimum legal age for marriage at 18 years for both sexes. The minimum age can be reduced by two years under certain conditions with the consent of legal guardians. There is limited data available on child marriage practices in Kazakhstan, and the recorded prevalence rate of marriages below 18 remains low at about 7%.23Kazakhstan: Child marriage prevalence rates and stats, Girls not Brides, accessed January 2025
https://www.girlsnotbrides.org/learning-resources/child-marriage-atlas/regions-and-countries/kazakhstan/ However, the UN Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW) has expressed concern regarding the high prevalence of unregistered child religious marriages as well as bride kidnapping.24Universal Periodic Review 2025, United Nations Human Rights Council, accessed January 2025 https://docs.un.org/en/A/HRC/WG.6/48/KAZ/2 These practices are more common in rural areas and among minority religious groups. The government of Kazakhstan has committed to ending child, early and forced marriage by 203025Kazakhstan: Child marriage prevalence rates and stats, Girls not Brides, accessed January 2025
https://www.girlsnotbrides.org/learning-resources/child-marriage-atlas/regions-and-countries/kazakhstan/ and also intends to strengthen criminal legislation against bride kidnapping.26“Kazakhstan plans to toughen liability for bride kidnapping”, Human Rights Commissioner in the Republic of Kazakhstan, 4 August 2023 https://www.gov.kz/memleket/entities/ombudsman/press/news/details/597697?lang=en
Family, community & society
The country’s legal system is strictly secular, and religious laws do not have a binding role in the courts. Non-religious individuals have the right to live without religious observance.
Women’s rights
Women in Kazakhstan have the legal right to work, vote, and hold public office, and there are policies aimed at promoting gender equality, such as laws prohibiting gender-based violence and discrimination. However, gender inequality remains a concern, especially in rural areas, where traditional gender roles persist. Domestic violence remains a significant issue. The new domestic violence law, introduced in April 2024, enforces tougher penalties for convicted perpetrators and strengthens protection for victims.27“Kazakhstan: New Law to Protect Women Improved, but Incomplete”, Human Rights Watch, 23 April 2024 https://www.hrw.org/news/2024/04/23/kazakhstan-new-law-protect-women-improved-incomplete
LGBTI+ rights
LGBTI+ rights in Kazakhstan are restricted, and the country remains conservative on LGBTI+ issues. Homosexuality was decriminalized in 1997, but there are no legal protections against discrimination based on sexual orientation or gender identity. Same-sex marriage is not recognized, and there are no laws that allow for gender recognition of transgender individuals.28LGBTI Rights in Kazakhstan, ILGA world database, accessed January2025 https://database.ilga.org/kazakhstan-lgbti
LGBTI+ individuals in Kazakhstan face significant challenges, including harassment, discrimination, and violence. Attempts to report homophobic and transphobic violence are frequently met with resistance or hostility from law enforcement. In May 2021, two organizers of an LGBTI+ gathering in Shymkent were threatened by counter-demonstrators and taken into custody, detained and mistreated by the police.29“Sexual Minorities In Kazakhstan Hide Who They Are To Avoid Abuse”, Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty, 19 June 2021
https://www.rferl.org/a/kazakhstan-lgbt-hide-from-abuse/31316186.html
Religious beliefs and patriarchal traditions have a role to play in this. In April 2023, the Muftiate, Kazakhstan’s chief religious institution, condemned same-sex relationships as “obscene” and “degenerate,” claiming they defy nature and divine will.30Kazakhstan. Annual Review of the Human Rights Situation of Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, Trans, and Intersex People 2023, ILGA Europe
https://www.ilga-europe.org/files/uploads/2024/02/2024_kazahkstan.pdf The Kazakhstani Union of Parents accused feminists, particularly the human rights organization Feminita, of recruiting youth and spreading “LGBT propaganda” and submitted a petition to Kazakhstan’s Ministry of Culture and Information.31Viktoriya Kim, “Kazakhstan Should Reject Attempt to Curtail LGBT People’s Rights”, Human Rights Watch, 10 July 2024 https://www.hrw.org/news/2024/07/10/kazakhstan-should-reject-attempt-curtail-lgbt-peoples-rights In autumn the same year, former military officers proposed recriminalizing homosexuality.32Kazakhstan. Annual Review of the Human Rights Situation of Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, Trans, and Intersex People 2023, ILGA Europe https://www.ilga-europe.org/files/uploads/2024/02/2024_kazahkstan.pdf
Freedom of expression, advocacy of humanist values
Media freedom
The government severely limits freedom of expression, in contradiction to constitutional rights. Major broadcast media, especially national television networks and major newspapers, are wholly or partly owned by the State or pro-government outlets. The remaining independent media is heavily regulated, and frequently censored and harassed.33 “Kazakhstan media guide”, BBC, last updated 24 January 2023 https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-pacific-15482614 Journalists are subject to threats of violence, unjustified detention and arrests, censorship and control with the threat of enforcing criminal libel laws. There is also increasing intimidation from unidentified non-state actors.342023 Report on International Religious Freedom: Kazakhstan, US Department of State, accessed January 2025 https://www.state.gov/reports/2023-report-on-international-religious-freedom/kazakhstan/
A 2009 law on mass media35Ministry of Justice of the Republic of Kazakhstan, Legal information system of Regulatory Legal Acts of the Republic of Kazakhstan, https://adilet.zan.kz/eng/docs/Z2400000093 classified websites as mass media outlets, giving the authorities more powers to arbitrarily shut them down under vaguely worded extremism statutes or in the interests of State security. Since the introduction of this law, dozens of websites have been closed every year. The government tightly controls online content, blocking or slowing access to opposition websites, some news sites from neighboring countries, and other platforms. It has also throttled internet access during local protests. Further, media law requires citizens to register their online comments, with the registration details made available to law enforcement upon request, leading to most online media outlets avoiding public comment sections.36“Freedom on the net 2023: Kazakhstan”, Freedom House, accessed January 2025 https://freedomhouse.org/country/kazakhstan/freedom-net/2023
Censorship of religious texts
The government censors all religious texts and routinely prosecutes citizens for possessing or distributing religious literature. Religious literature and objects can only be distributed in registered places of worship or religious education, as per Article 9, Part 2 of the religion law. In 2022, the authorities brought 144 administrative prosecutions against individuals for posting religious texts, messages or recordings on social media without the permission of the State. At least six cases punished people for importing religious literature.37“Kazakhstan: 144 administrative prosecutions in 2022”, Forum 18, 31 March 2023 https://www.forum18.org/archive.php?article_id=2821
Misuse of laws against incitement of religious hatred
Freedom of speech on religious issues is limited by Article 174 of Kazakhstan’s Criminal Code (amended in 2014),38 Ministry of Justice of the Republic of Kazakhstan, Legal information system of Regulatory Legal Acts of the Republic of Kazakhstan https://adilet.zan.kz/eng/docs/K970000167_ which bans, in terms that are vague and wide-ranging:
“Incitement of social, national, clan, racial, or religious hatred or discord, insult to the national honour and dignity or religious feelings of citizens, as well as propaganda of exclusivity, superiority or inferiority of citizens on grounds of their religion, class, national, generic or racial identity, committed publicly or with the use of mass media or information and communication networks, as well as by production or distribution of literature or other information media, promoting social, national, clan, racial, or religious hatred or discord”.
Punishments for violating Article 174 range from a fine to imprisonment of up to seven years. Article 174 has been used in practice to prosecute the non-religious ostensibly for “religious hatred”. Secrecy surrounds many of these prosecutions, with hearings often being closed to the public and cases being brought by or being closely connected to the KNB secret police.39“Kazakhstan: Article 174 cases increase, Cancer sufferer tortured”, Forum 18, 7 March 2017 https://webarchive.archive.unhcr.org/20230518125047/https://www.refworld.org/docid/58bfbe4c4.html
On 14 March 2013, atheist writer and anti-corruption campaigner Aleksandr Kharlamov was arrested for “inciting religious hatred”. The indictment against him, brought under Article 174, claimed that Kharlamov “in his articles on newspapers and the internet put his personal opinions above the opinions and faith of the majority of the public and thus incited religious animosity”. Kharlamov was confined to a psychiatric hospital for “psychiatric evaluation”. He was detained for five months including one month of forced psychiatric examination. He was subsequently released and his case was finally closed in 2018. Kharlamov lodged a suit against the police and the Finance Ministry seeking recompense for the abuse he suffered and won a million tenge ($2,578) from the state for unlawful prosecution.40 “Aleksandr Kharlamov”, Tom Lantos Human Rights Commission, United States Congress, accessed January 2025 https://humanrightscommission.house.gov/DFP/Countries/Kazakhstan/Aleksandr-Kharlamov
In January 2016, two activists, Ermek Narymbaev and Serikzhan Mambetalin, were convicted for violating Article 174 and sentenced to three years and two years in prison, respectively, after they posted excerpts from an unpublished book written by religious figure Murat Telibekov on their Facebook pages. There are clear indications that they were in reality targeted for their vocal criticism of the government and participation in peaceful protests. Mambetalin was subsequently released after posting a public apology on Facebook41 “Kazakh Activist Released After ‘Repentance’ Letter”, Radio Free Europe, 1 February 2016 https://www.rferl.org/a/kazakh-activist-released-repentance/27523611.html and Narymbaev’s sentence was reduced to a non-custodial sentence by an appellate court.42Case history: Ermek Narymbaev, Front Line Defenders, accessed February 2025 https://www.frontlinedefenders.org/en/case/case-history-ermek-narymbaev
In the same year, human rights defender Bolatbek Blyalov was similarly charged under Article 174 for “inciting” both “national” and “social discord” based on videos posted on YouTube, in which he expresses his views on contentious matters such as nationalism and the rights of individuals whose houses are up for demolition. Blyalov ‘confessed’ and was released, but the court imposed restrictions on his freedom of movement for three years.43Case history: Bolatbek Blyalov, Front Line Defenders, accessed February 2025 https://www.frontlinedefenders.org/en/case/case-history-bolatbek-blyalov
Freedom of association and assembly
Article 23 of the Constitution specifies the right to freedom of association and article 32 establishes the “right to assemble peacefully and unarmed, to hold meetings, campaigns, demonstrations, street processions and pickets.” However, it also states that the right to freedom of assembly “may be restricted by law in the interest of state security, public order, protection of health, rights and freedoms of others.”44Constitution of the Republic of Kazakhstan, Official website of the President of the Republic of Kazakhstan, accessed January 2025 https://www.akorda.kz/en/constitution-of-the-republic-of-kazakhstan-50912
In practice, freedom of association and assembly in Kazakhstan is heavily restricted, with authorities imposing legal and administrative barriers. Organizing demonstrations requires prior government approval and the government tightly controls public gatherings, often citing security concerns to justify crackdowns. Police frequently disperse unsanctioned demonstrations, sometimes using excessive force, while activists, journalists, and religious leaders risk detention for organizing or attending such events. Religious minorities, particularly unregistered groups, experience surveillance, raids, and restrictions on their gatherings, limiting their ability to practice their faith freely.45Kazakhstan: Freedom in the World 2024, Freedom House,
https://freedomhouse.org/country/kazakhstan/freedom-world/2024
Testimonials
“In modern Kazakhstan, under the current political and legal regime, there is no true freedom of religion, and the situation is getting worse and worse. It is evident that most Kazakh authorities support the religion of Islam and persecute non-Muslims, including atheists. However, religious Islamists create organized crime and extremist militias, religious Kazakhstans commit crimes, and participate in armed religious conflict, like in Syria. Fanatics from the religion of Islam believe that their religion is the one true one and should become the only religion on the planet.”
— Aleksandr Kharlamov
References
| ↑1 | Official website of the President of the Republic of Kazakhstan, accessed January 2025 https://www.akorda.kz/en/republic_of_kazakhstan/kazakhstan |
|---|---|
| ↑2 | Dimash Alzhanov, “Kazakhstan’s referendum: regime consolidation instead of genuine political reforms”, Constitutionnet, 28 July 2022 https://constitutionnet.org/news/kazakhstans-referendum-regime-consolidation-instead-genuine-political-reforms |
| ↑3 | “Population of the Republic of Kazakhstan by gender and type of locality (at the beginning of 2024)”, Bureau of National Statistics, accessed January 2025 https://stat.gov.kz/en/industries/social-statistics/demography/publications/157662/ |
| ↑4 | Results of the National Population Census 2021, Bureau for National Statistics https://stat.gov.kz/en/national/2021/ |
| ↑5, ↑34 | 2023 Report on International Religious Freedom: Kazakhstan, US Department of State, accessed January 2025 https://www.state.gov/reports/2023-report-on-international-religious-freedom/kazakhstan/ |
| ↑6 | “Kazakhstan country brief”, Australian Government Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade, accessed January 2025 https://www.dfat.gov.au/geo/kazakhstan/kazakhstan-country-brief |
| ↑7 | Constitution of the Republic of Kazakhstan, Official website of the President of the Republic of Kazakhstan, accessed January 2025 https://www.akorda.kz/en/constitution-of-the-republic-of-kazakhstan-50912 |
| ↑8 | Kazakhstan 2022 International Religious Freedom Report, U.S. Embassy & Consulate in Kazakhstan, accessed January 2025 https://kz.usembassy.gov/wp-content/uploads/sites/90/2023/05/441219-KAZAKHSTAN-2022-INTERNATIONAL-RELIGIOUS-FREEDOM-REPORT.pdf |
| ↑9 | “People Without Religion. Number of Atheists Grows in Kazakhstan”, Central Asian Bureau for Analytical Reporting, 27 August 2019 https://cabar.asia/en/people-without-religion-number-of-atheists-grows-in-kazakhstan |
| ↑10 | Law No. 482-IV, on Religious Activities and Religious Associations, Unofficial Translation, refworld, https://www.refworld.org/legal/legislation/natlegbod/2011/en/122796 |
| ↑11 | Svante E. Cornell, S. Frederick Starr, Julian Tucker, Religion and the Secular State in Kazakhstan, Central Asia-Caucasus Institute & Silk Road Studies Program, American Foreign Policy Council & Institute for Security and Development Policy, April 2018 https://silkroadstudies.org/resources/pdf/SilkRoadPapers/2018-04-Kazakhstan-Secularism.pdf |
| ↑12 | 2023 Report on International Religious Freedom: Kazakhstan, US Department of State, accessed January 2025 https://www.state.gov/reports/2023-report-on-international-religious-freedom/kazakhstan/ |
| ↑13 | Kazakhstan: Religious freedom survey, Forum 18, 23 June 2022 https://www.forum18.org/archive.php?article_id=2753 |
| ↑14 | FoRB Victims List Profil – Kazakhstan, USCIRF, updated March 2024 https://www.uscirf.gov/sites/default/files/Kazakhstan%20FoRB%20Victims%20List%2003-2024.pdf |
| ↑15 | KaUSCIRF-Recommended for Special Watchlist, US Commission on International Religious Freedom 2024 https://www.uscirf.gov/sites/default/files/2024-05/Kazakhstan%202024.pdf |
| ↑16 | Daniil Smal, US Commission on International Religious Freedom, accessed January 2025 https://www.uscirf.gov/religious-prisoners-conscience/forb-victims-database/daniil-smal |
| ↑17 | 2023 Report on International Religious Freedom: Kazakhstan, US Department of State, accessed January 2025 https://www.state.gov/reports/2023-report-on-international-religious-freedom/kazakhstan/ |
| ↑18 | Order of the Minister of Education and Science of the Republic of Kazakhstan dated January 14, 2016, Ministry of Justice of the Republic of Kazakhstan, accessed January 2025 https://adilet.zan.kz/rus/docs/V1600013085 |
| ↑19 | Anatolij Weisskopf, “Kazakhstan announces ban on hijabs in schools”, 22 October 2023 https://www.dw.com/en/kazakhstan-announces-ban-on-hijabs-in-schools/a-67175196 |
| ↑20 | “My headscarf is simply a part of me”: the Kazakh schoolgirls fighting for the right to wear the hijab”, BBC News Russian, 6 February 2024 https://bbcrussian.substack.com/p/kazakhstan-hijab-ban-in-schools |
| ↑21 | Kazakhstan: Parents challenge schoolgirl headscarf ban”, Forum 18, 20 April 2018 https://webarchive.archive.unhcr.org/20230519031023/https://www.refworld.org/docid/5af009144.html |
| ↑22 | Kazakhstan Code on Marriage (Matrimony) and Family, Ministry of Justice of the Republic of Kazakhstan, accessed January 2025 https://adilet.zan.kz/eng/docs/K1100000518 |
| ↑23 | Kazakhstan: Child marriage prevalence rates and stats, Girls not Brides, accessed January 2025 https://www.girlsnotbrides.org/learning-resources/child-marriage-atlas/regions-and-countries/kazakhstan/ |
| ↑24 | Universal Periodic Review 2025, United Nations Human Rights Council, accessed January 2025 https://docs.un.org/en/A/HRC/WG.6/48/KAZ/2 |
| ↑25 | Kazakhstan: Child marriage prevalence rates and stats, Girls not Brides, accessed January 2025 https://www.girlsnotbrides.org/learning-resources/child-marriage-atlas/regions-and-countries/kazakhstan/ |
| ↑26 | “Kazakhstan plans to toughen liability for bride kidnapping”, Human Rights Commissioner in the Republic of Kazakhstan, 4 August 2023 https://www.gov.kz/memleket/entities/ombudsman/press/news/details/597697?lang=en |
| ↑27 | “Kazakhstan: New Law to Protect Women Improved, but Incomplete”, Human Rights Watch, 23 April 2024 https://www.hrw.org/news/2024/04/23/kazakhstan-new-law-protect-women-improved-incomplete |
| ↑28 | LGBTI Rights in Kazakhstan, ILGA world database, accessed January2025 https://database.ilga.org/kazakhstan-lgbti |
| ↑29 | “Sexual Minorities In Kazakhstan Hide Who They Are To Avoid Abuse”, Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty, 19 June 2021 https://www.rferl.org/a/kazakhstan-lgbt-hide-from-abuse/31316186.html |
| ↑30 | Kazakhstan. Annual Review of the Human Rights Situation of Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, Trans, and Intersex People 2023, ILGA Europe https://www.ilga-europe.org/files/uploads/2024/02/2024_kazahkstan.pdf |
| ↑31 | Viktoriya Kim, “Kazakhstan Should Reject Attempt to Curtail LGBT People’s Rights”, Human Rights Watch, 10 July 2024 https://www.hrw.org/news/2024/07/10/kazakhstan-should-reject-attempt-curtail-lgbt-peoples-rights |
| ↑32 | Kazakhstan. Annual Review of the Human Rights Situation of Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, Trans, and Intersex People 2023, ILGA Europe https://www.ilga-europe.org/files/uploads/2024/02/2024_kazahkstan.pdf |
| ↑33 | “Kazakhstan media guide”, BBC, last updated 24 January 2023 https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-pacific-15482614 |
| ↑35 | Ministry of Justice of the Republic of Kazakhstan, Legal information system of Regulatory Legal Acts of the Republic of Kazakhstan, https://adilet.zan.kz/eng/docs/Z2400000093 |
| ↑36 | “Freedom on the net 2023: Kazakhstan”, Freedom House, accessed January 2025 https://freedomhouse.org/country/kazakhstan/freedom-net/2023 |
| ↑37 | “Kazakhstan: 144 administrative prosecutions in 2022”, Forum 18, 31 March 2023 https://www.forum18.org/archive.php?article_id=2821 |
| ↑38 | Ministry of Justice of the Republic of Kazakhstan, Legal information system of Regulatory Legal Acts of the Republic of Kazakhstan https://adilet.zan.kz/eng/docs/K970000167_ |
| ↑39 | “Kazakhstan: Article 174 cases increase, Cancer sufferer tortured”, Forum 18, 7 March 2017 https://webarchive.archive.unhcr.org/20230518125047/https://www.refworld.org/docid/58bfbe4c4.html |
| ↑40 | “Aleksandr Kharlamov”, Tom Lantos Human Rights Commission, United States Congress, accessed January 2025 https://humanrightscommission.house.gov/DFP/Countries/Kazakhstan/Aleksandr-Kharlamov |
| ↑41 | “Kazakh Activist Released After ‘Repentance’ Letter”, Radio Free Europe, 1 February 2016 https://www.rferl.org/a/kazakh-activist-released-repentance/27523611.html |
| ↑42 | Case history: Ermek Narymbaev, Front Line Defenders, accessed February 2025 https://www.frontlinedefenders.org/en/case/case-history-ermek-narymbaev |
| ↑43 | Case history: Bolatbek Blyalov, Front Line Defenders, accessed February 2025 https://www.frontlinedefenders.org/en/case/case-history-bolatbek-blyalov |
| ↑44 | Constitution of the Republic of Kazakhstan, Official website of the President of the Republic of Kazakhstan, accessed January 2025 https://www.akorda.kz/en/constitution-of-the-republic-of-kazakhstan-50912 |
| ↑45 | Kazakhstan: Freedom in the World 2024, Freedom House, https://freedomhouse.org/country/kazakhstan/freedom-world/2024 |
Support our work
Freedom of Thought Report by Humanists International is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License.