Malaysia

Malaysia is a federal, multi-territory constitutional monarchy, split across two land masses separated by the South China Sea: Peninsular Malaysia and East Malaysia. The country gained complete independence from British rule in 1963 and is now considered one of the most vibrant economies of South East Asia. It is a multi-ethnic federation of 13 states and three federal territories.¹“Malaysia”, Britannica, accessed June 2025 https://www.britannica.com/place/Malaysia; “Malaysia Country Profile”, BBC, last updated May 2023 https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-pacific-15356257

Malaysia’s 2020 census shows that Islam is the dominant religion, with 63.5% of the population identifying as Muslim. The largest minority religions are Buddhism (18.7%), Christianity (9.1%), and Hinduism (6.1%). A smaller share reported no religious affiliation (1.8%) or were of other faiths (0.9%).² “Malaysia” chapter in 2023 Report on International Religious Freedom (U.S. Department of State, 2024) https://www.state.gov/reports/2023-report-on-international-religious-freedom/malaysia/

Constitution and government

Malaysia is a federal constitutional monarchy with a ceremonial head of state who holds the title of Yang di-Pertuan Agong (“paramount ruler”) and who is elected for a five-year term from among nine hereditary state rulers. The monarch appoints a prime minister from among the members of the House of Representatives, usually the leader of the party winning the most seats in a general election.³“Malaysia”, Britannica, accessed June 2025 https://www.britannica.com/place/Malaysia

Malaysia is currently governed by a coalition government composed of Pakatan Harapan (PH), Barisan Nasional (BN), Gabungan Parti Sarawak (GPS), Gabungan Rakyat Sabah (GRS), and several smaller parties. Following Malaysia’s 2022 General Election and the growing influence of the Islamist Malaysian Islamic Party (PAS), there has been an increased implementation of Sharia-based laws and education policies. PAS has put pressure on the current government to adopt stricter, religious-based policies, and the party tends to view non-Muslims as a threat to the dominant role of Sunni Islam in society.⁴USCIRF, 2025 Annual Report of the U.S. Commission on International Religious Freedom https://www.uscirf.gov/sites/default/files/2025-03/2025%20USCIRF%20Annual%20Report.pdf

In 2023, the President of PAS told reporters that the Chinese-Malaysian majority Democratic Action Party (DAP) seeks to dilute the Malay-Muslim race by pushing a secularist agenda. He claimed that its influence would ruin the country’s peace and stability, adding that non-Muslims’ wellbeing would be threatened if they “cross the line.”⁵Chan Wai Kit. “PAS president calls DAP a nuisance, warns non-Muslims not to cross the line.” Malay Mail, 31 May 2023 https://www.malaymail.com/news/malaysia/2023/05/31/pas-president-calls-dap-a-nuisance-warns-non-muslims-not-to-cross-the-line/71888 However, as PAS prepares for the next General Election, due by early 2028, it is looking to soften its image. The party has been reducing the visibility of religious hardliners and championing moderate professionals who claim they can lead Malaysia towards economic prosperity and improve quality of life for Malaysians.

The Constitution of Malaysia⁶Constitution of Malaysia, Constitute Project https://www.constituteproject.org/constitution/Malaysia_2007 (English / Malay) was first established in 1957 and has been amended many times, most recently in 2025. Article 3 of the Constitution states that Islam is the religion of the country but that other religions may also be practiced in peace and harmony.

The State and Federal Territories have the power to restrict the type of Islam that may be practiced in the country, as outlined under Article 11.4:

“State law and in respect of the Federal Territories of Kuala Lumpur, Labuan and Putrajaya, federal law may control or restrict the propagation of any religious doctrine or belief among persons professing the religion of Islam.”

The Constitution also defines all ethnic Malays as Muslim in Article 160, meaning that, by law, ethnic Malays are not free to choose their own religion.

A constitutional change in 1988 limited the role of civil courts in matters treated as falling within Sharia jurisdiction. As a result, in disputes involving both legal systems, Sharia courts may rule on issues they regard as within their authority – including disputes in which non-Muslims are involved.⁷“Malaysia” chapter in 2023 Report on International Religious Freedom (U.S. Department of State, 2024)  https://www.state.gov/reports/2023-report-on-international-religious-freedom/malaysia/

Non-Muslims are legally restricted from attempting to convert Muslims, and enforcement and penalties differ by state. Punishments range from imprisonment to corporal punishment. By contrast, Islamic proselytization is not subject to the same limitations.⁸“Malaysia” chapter in 2023 Report on International Religious Freedom (U.S. Department of State, 2024) https://www.state.gov/reports/2023-report-on-international-religious-freedom/malaysia/

Malaysia’s Constitution assigns the King the role of highest Islamic authority in the Federal Territories and in four of the country’s 13 states that do not have hereditary rulers (sultans). In the remaining nine states, the Sultans serve as the “Heads of Islam,” and the King is chosen for a five-year term from among the Sultans. Islamic administration is primarily handled at state level through religious departments, councils, and muftis, with the Head of Islam exercising authority over Islamic institutions, including Sharia courts.⁹“Malaysia” chapter in 2023 Report on International Religious Freedom (U.S. Department of State, 2024) https://www.state.gov/reports/2023-report-on-international-religious-freedom/malaysia/

Registration of religious groups

Religious groups are not generally required to register with the government, but registration is typically required to obtain formal legal status (for example, as a non-profit or charitable organization). Many groups choose to formalize their legal status for practical reasons – such as opening bank accounts – and for tax-related advantages. Formal status is typically undertaken with the Registrar of Societies and some religious groups, including non-Sunni Islamic groups, have reported difficulties in obtaining registration approval. Recognized organizations can access tax exemptions or benefits and Muslims may claim a rebate for zakat (Islamic tithes) donations.¹⁰“Malaysia” chapter in 2023 Report on International Religious Freedom (U.S. Department of State, 2024) https://www.state.gov/reports/2023-report-on-international-religious-freedom/malaysia/

State impunity

The Human Rights Commission of Malaysia (SUHAKAM) has been central to public debate about accountability in enforced-disappearance cases, including those of activist Amri Che Mat and pastor Raymond Koh. In October 2024, a government report asserted that the disappearances were not authorised by the state and attributed responsibility to “rogue” officers. Family members and civil society actors have continued to press for transparent investigations and accountability.¹¹USCIRF, 2025 Annual Report of the U.S. Commission on International Religious Freedom https://www.uscirf.gov/sites/default/files/2025-03/2025%20USCIRF%20Annual%20Report.pdf

Education and children’s rights

Malaysia’s public-school curriculum involves mandatory religious education – as either Islamic education (for Muslim students) or as moral and ethics studies (for non-Muslim students). Religious education for non-Muslims is more commonly pursued outside the public-school curriculum through private schooling or community-based education.¹²”Malaysia” chapter in 2023 Report on International Religious Freedom (U.S. Department of State, 2024)  https://www.state.gov/reports/2023-report-on-international-religious-freedom/malaysia/

Private Islamic schools, such as Sekolah Agama Rakyat and tahfiz schools, may receive selective government grants – typically conditional upon registration, government supervision, and compliance with approved curricula.

In October 2019, reports that a Christian prayer was read at a student awards ceremony drew strong objections from several Islamic groups and prompted a police inquiry. The investigation involved questioning and police taking statements from the school’s staff. The incident contrasts with the common use of Islamic prayers in Malaysian schools, particularly in formal settings such as assemblies.¹³Balvin Kaur, “Cops record 6 statements on Christian school prayer fiasco”, New Straits Times, 7 October 2019 https://www.nst.com.my/news/nation/2019/10/527739/cops-record-6-statements-christian-school-prayer-fiasco; “Christian Prayer Row in Penang School Put to Rest.” The Malaysian Insight, 17 October 2019 https://www.themalaysianinsight.com/index.php/s/191025

Islamic Studies in Public Schools

In order to graduate from secondary school, Muslim students must undertake compulsory Islamic subjects. In August 2018, there was public outcry after it became known that some educational materials used in public schools for obtaining the Sijil Pelajaran Malaysia (Malaysian Certificate of Education) – equivalent to O’ Levels or GED – included violent topics. What appears to be a leaked state-level trial examination paper on Islamic Studies included a question on the permissible ways to “hit a disobedient wife”.¹⁴Annabelle Lee, “Explain wife-beating question in Islamic Studies exam, Siti Kasim tells Maszlee”, Malaysiakini, 22 September 2018 https://www.malaysiakini.com/news/444228 Shortly after, another image from a textbook on Islamic Studies was leaked. The textbook read that death is a reasonable punishment for murtads (ex-Muslims).¹⁵“Siti Kasim now slams ‘death to apostates’ in Islamic Studies book”, Malaysiakini, 22 April 2018 https://www.malaysiakini.com/news/444282

Tahfiz Schools

Malaysia has roughly 1,200 tahfiz institutions. These are religious schools that typically prioritise Qur’an memorisation and do not have to follow the standard national syllabus. In recent years, the government has focused on improving oversight and standardizing regulation across the sector.¹⁶USCIRF, 2023 Annual Report of the U.S. Commission on International Religious Freedom https://www.uscirf.gov/sites/default/files/2023-05/Malaysia.pdf

In April 2017, an 11-year-old school boy died after suffering abuse at a tahfiz school in the state of Johor. The boy, along with fellow school children, had been whipped on the legs with a water hose by an assistant warden.¹⁷Rozanna Latif, “Malaysian boy aged 11 dies after being beaten at religious school”, Independent, 26 April 2017 https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/asia/malaysia-religious-islamic-school-boy-11-beaten-dies-legs-amputated-a7703096.html

In 2024, the Global Ikhwan Services and Business Holdings (GISBH) conglomerate, linked to a banned religious sect, saw authorities rescue hundreds of children from its welfare homes where they were allegedly sexually abused and neglected. Children were reportedly exposed to religious extremism and videos containing militant themes. The case exposed significant weaknesses in child protection and oversight of religious institutions.¹⁸“ Inside Malaysia’s ‘houses of horror’: Dark secret of child abuse, cult allegations, and a $75 mn scandal”, The Economic Times, 23 October 2024 https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/international/global-trends/inside-malaysias-houses-of-horror-dark-secret-of-child-abuse-cult-allegations-and-a-75-mn-scandal/articleshow/114510323.cms?from=mdr

Such cases, as well as the problem of school buildings being found unsafe,¹⁹“Fire Dept: Half of tahfiz schools found unsafe”, Malaysiakini, 16 October 2017 https://www.malaysiakini.com/news/398471 had previously forced the government to declare that all tahfiz schools must be regulated or shut down. However, unregistered institutions continue to exist throughout Malaysia.²⁰“ Lessons from tahfiz fire, no compromise on safety”, New Straits Times, 29 September 2023 https://www.nst.com.my/news/nation/2023/09/960899/lessons-tahfiz-fire-no-compromise-safety

Child marriage

The issue of child marriage remains a problem in Malaysia, largely due to the lack of a standard legal minimum age of marriage. With parental consent, Sharia courts are able to grant permission for girls to marry under the legal age of 16 and boys under the legal age of 18.²¹Compilation of information prepared by the Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights, Human Rights Council, Working Group on the Universal Periodic Review, Forty-fifth session,
22 January–2 February 2024, A/HRC/WG.6/45/MYS/2
https://docs.un.org/en/A/HRC/WG.6/45/MYS/2

In June 2018, the marriage of a 41-year-old Malaysian man to an 11-year-old child was posted on social media by his second wife. The Deputy Prime Minister and Minister of Women and Family Development, Datuk Seri Dr. Wan Azizah Wan Ismail, stated that the 11-year-old girl “consented” to the marriage.²²“Child bride in second case ‘consented’ to marriage: Dr Wan Azizah.”, TODAY, 20 September 2018. https://www.todayonline.com/world/child-bride-second-case-consented-marriage-dr-wan-azizah

After a government investigation, the man was fined a total of RM 1,800 (USD 434) by the Gua Musang Syariah court for solemnizing the marriage and for polygamy without obtaining the court’s permission. Each charge consisted of a fine of RM 900 (USD 217). The man, however, remains married to the child.²³“Man Fined RM1,800 for Marrying 11-Year-Old Girl without Syariah Court’s Consent.”, The Star, 9 July 2018 https://www.thestar.com.my/news/nation/2018/07/09/man-fined-rm1800-for-marrying-11-year-old-girl-without-syariah-courts-consent

At the time, the Deputy Prime Minister claimed that the Federal Government did not have the power to nullify child marriage as it fell under Islamic Sharia laws.²⁴Zahiid, Syed Jaymal. “DPM: Under Islamic Law, Marriage of Child Bride in Kelantan Still Valid” Malay Mail, 10 July 2018 https://www.malaymail.com/news/malaysia/2018/07/10/dpm-under-islamic-law-marriage-of-child-bride-in-kelantan-still-valid/1650740 Following public outcry, the federal government decided to take measures to increase the minimum age of marriage to 18 for both Muslims and non-Muslims. However, the Mufti of Sabah, Datuk Bungsu Aziz Jaafar, spoke out against it, and suggested lowering the minimum age of marriage to 14 and suggesting that children are “now more mature”, sparking public outrage.²⁵ “Sabah Mufti’s Proposal to Reduce Marriage Age Triggers Backlash” Malay Mail, 25 September 2018 https://www.malaymail.com/news/malaysia/2018/09/25/sabah-muftis-proposal-to-reduce-marriage-age-triggers-backlash/1676259

Unilateral conversion of children to Islam

Under federal law it is illegal for one parent to convert a child’s religion without the consent of the other parent. However, under some state laws it is legal. Most courts rule against the practice in the majority of cases, however there are exceptions.

In 2018, Malaysia’s Federal Court ruled that converting the three children of Hindu mother Indira Gandhi to Islam without her consent was unlawful. The ruling stated that both parents must consent to the religious conversion of their children.²⁶Ida Lim, “Simplified: The Federal Court’s groundbreaking Indira Gandhi judgment.” Malay Mail, 1 February 2018 https://www.malaymail.com/news/malaysia/2018/02/01/simplified-the-federal-courts-groundbreaking-indira-gandhi-judgment/1567409 In March 2023, a petition was filed with the Kuala Lumpur High Court by Indira Gandhi and 13 others seeking to invalidate all state laws that permitted the unilateral religious conversion of a child. The plaintiffs argued that the laws are unconstitutional and in contradiction to the 2018 Federal Court ruling. Seven states and three Federal Territories were identified in the petition as allowing unilateral religious conversion of children without the consent of the other parent.²⁷“Malaysia” chapter in 2023 Report on International Religious Freedom (U.S. Department of State, 2024) https://www.state.gov/reports/2023-report-on-international-religious-freedom/malaysia/

In October 2023, the High Court granted permission to the Islamic Religious Councils of the Federal Territory (MAIWP) and Johor (MAIJ) to intervene in the case. The court, however, dismissed a similar application from Badan Peguam Syarie Wilayah Persekutuan (BPSWP), a statutory bar body for Sharia lawyers in Malaysia’s Federal Territories. One of the original defendants, the state of Pahang, was removed from the suit after it amended its state laws to require the consent of both parents, a move seen as a positive development by the plaintiffs.²⁸“High Court allows MAIWP, MAIJ to intervene in suit by Indira Gandhi on unilateral conversion of children to Islam”, Malay Mail, 23 October, 2023 https://www.malaymail.com/news/malaysia/2023/10/23/high-court-allows-maiwp-maij-to-intervene-in-suit-by-indira-gandhi-on-unilateral-conversion-of-children-to-islam/97924/ In October 2025, the court dismissed the MAIWP’s attempts to prevent the lawsuit and the case is scheduled to be heard in February 2026.²⁹The Edge Malaysia “Legal challenge to unilateral conversion laws to be heard next February”, The Edge Malaysia, 16 October 2025 https://theedgemalaysia.com/node/774393

The legal landscape has been further shaped by the case of Loh Siew Hong, a Buddhist-Hindu mother of three whose husband converted himself and his children to Islam without her consent. In January 2024, the Court of Appeal ruled in her favor. This was followed by a Federal Court ruling in May 2024 and a final review in April 2025 which decisively ruled against the unilateral conversion.³⁰Kenneth Tee, “Loh Siew Hong’s children remain Hindus as Federal Court shuts down Perlis govt’s last attempt to validate conversion.” Malay Mail, 8 April 2025 https://www.malaymail.com/news/malaysia/2025/04/08/loh-siew-hongs-children-remain-hindus-as-federal-court-shuts-down-perlis-govts-last-attempt-to-validate-conversion/172323 The case reinforced the precedent set in Indira Gandhi’s 2018 court ruling. These rulings are expected to significantly bolster the arguments of the 14 plaintiffs in their ongoing High Court challenge.³¹“Covert conversion of minors: breach of ethical and legal boundaries.”, Sisters in Islam, 12 June 2024  https://sistersinislam.org/covert-conversion-of-minors-breach-of-ethical-and-legal-boundaries/

Family, community and society

Sharia law

Muslims are subject to Sharia law, the interpretation of which can vary according to the state. This means that Muslims and non-Muslims are treated differently in “moral” and family law cases. Non-Muslims may also be directly affected by Sharia courts in certain circumstances – such as when one spouse in a non-Muslim marriage has converted to Islam.³²“Malaysia” chapter in Freedom in the World 2024 (Freedom House, 2024) https://freedomhouse.org/country/malaysia/freedom-world/2024 The relationship between Sharia and civil law remains problematic in Malaysia’s legal system.

In 2023, Malaysia’s parliament passed sweeping legal reforms to remove the mandatory death penalty at the federal level, though this does not necessarily apply to state Sharia enactments.³³Rozanna Latiff, “Malaysia scraps mandatory death penalty, natural-life prison terms”, Reuters, 3 April 2023 https://www.reuters.com/world/asia-pacific/malaysia-parliament-approves-law-remove-mandatory-death-penalty-2023-04-03/ In February 2024, Malaysia’s Federal Court struck down 16 Sharia-based laws from Kelantan state, declaring them unconstitutional.³⁴ Rozanna Latiff and Danial Azhar, “Malaysia’s Top Court Strikes Out Some Islamic Laws in Landmark Case,” Reuters, 9 February 2024, , https://www.reuters.com/world/asia-pacific/malaysias-top-court-declares-16-islamic-laws-kelantan-state-unconstitutional-2024-02-09/

Malaysia’s federal structure limits state powers regarding serious criminal penalties and state Sharia courts have been constrained in the severity of the punishments they can impose. The restraint is a result of the Sharia Courts (Criminal Jurisdiction) Act 1965 (Act 355).³⁵ Malaysia. Syariah Courts (Criminal Jurisdiction) Act 1965 (Act 355): Incorporating All Amendments Up to 1 January 2006. Accessed January 18, 2026. https://www.ius.uzh.ch/dam/jcr%3A00000000-573e-dcae-0000-0000567519e5/Act355.pdf This federal law stipulates the maximum punishments that Sharia courts are permitted to impose and they are currently limited to:

• A prison term of up to three years;
• A fine of up to RM5,000; and
• A maximum of six strokes of the cane.

Any punishment prescribed by a state Sharia enactment that exceeds these limits, including the death penalty, is ultra vires (beyond its legal power) and therefore unenforceable.

The state of Terengganu is subsequently reviewing its own Sharia laws³⁶Martin Carvalho, “Terengganu set to review its syariah laws”, The Star, 13 February 2024 https://www.thestar.com.my/news/nation/2024/02/13/terengganu-set-to-review-its-syariah-laws while Kelantan state is planning to revise and reintroduce provisions that were annulled.³⁷ “Kelantan govt to reintroduce 16 annulled provisions of Syariah Criminal Offences Enactment, says exco”, MalayMail, 8 May 2024 https://www.malaymail.com/news/malaysia/2024/05/08/kelantan-govt-to-reintroduce-16-annulled-provisions-of-syariah-criminal-offences-enactment-says-exco/133281

Enforced religious identity

Muslims are prohibited from possessing or circulating publications and other materials that authorities consider inconsistent with Sunni teachings of the Shafi’i school of Islam. Those that do, can be convicted of “deviant” religious activity and face state-level Sharia penalties. The punishments vary depending on the state, and can include imprisonment (of up to three years), caning, and a 5,000 ringgit (USD 1,100) fine.³⁸ “Malaysia” chapter in 2023 Report on International Religious Freedom (U.S. Department of State, 2024)  https://www.state.gov/reports/2023-report-on-international-religious-freedom/malaysia/

In Malaysia, individuals are required to carry a national identity card called MyKad. The person’s religion is recorded electronically and, for Muslims, their religion is displayed on the front of the card. The authorities use MyKad to determine when Sharia jurisdiction applies.³⁹ “Malaysia” chapter in 2023 Report on International Religious Freedom (U.S. Department of State, 2024)  https://www.state.gov/reports/2023-report-on-international-religious-freedom/malaysia/

Marriages between Muslims and non-Muslims are not officially recognized and children born from such unions are considered illegitimate. In order to marry a Muslim, a non-Muslim must convert to Islam for the Sharia court to officially recognize the marriage.⁴⁰ “Malaysia” chapter in 2023 Report on International Religious Freedom (U.S. Department of State, 2024)  https://www.state.gov/reports/2023-report-on-international-religious-freedom/malaysia/

According to Malaysian human rights organizations, the official narrative of national unity has led to the suppression of religious and ethnic diversity in the country. It has been claimed that Malaysia’s indigenous population is losing its cultural identity and right to practice their own religion and customs.⁴¹Summary of stakeholders’ submissions on Malaysia, Human Rights Council
Working Group on the Universal Periodic Review, Forty-fifth session, 22 January–2 February 2024, A/HRC/WG.6/45/MYS/3 https://docs.un.org/en/A/HRC/WG.6/45/MYS/3

In 2023, the Sultan of the state of Selangor declared that there was nothing to stop Muslims from visiting non-Muslim places of worship for social reasons, provided they did not join rituals. He also announced that it was illegal for Muslims to learn about other religions, to prevent proselytization.⁴² “Malaysia” chapter in 2023 Report on International Religious Freedom (U.S. Department of State, 2024)  https://www.state.gov/reports/2023-report-on-international-religious-freedom/malaysia/

Apostasy

Non-Muslims are not legally restricted from changing religious affiliation and may request recognition as non-religious by changing their status to “tidak ada agama” (no religion) at the National Registration Department (NRD). Muslims who seek legal recognition of leaving Islam, however, must obtain approval through a Sharia court process, and such approvals are rarely granted in practice.

As Islamic law is administered at state level, apostasy-related offences and penalties differ across Malaysia. Some states provide for fines or imprisonment (including Perak, Melaka, Sabah, and Pahang), Pahang also permits caning (of up to six strokes), and Kelantan and Terengganu list a maximum penalty of death – though that penalty has never been imposed.⁴³ “Malaysia” chapter in 2023 Report on International Religious Freedom (U.S. Department of State, 2024) https://www.state.gov/reports/2023-report-on-international-religious-freedom/malaysia/

In 2000, Lina Joy, born Azlina Jailani, sought to have her conversion from Islam to Christianity recognized legally. Her case was rejected and became a landmark controversy. She took her appeal to the Federal Court which, in 2007, upheld the ruling that she must obtain Sharia court approval to renounce Islam, effectively denying her request. The case sparked national debate about freedom of religion and the jurisdiction of Sharia versus civil courts. Lina Joy’s conversion was not recognized and she reportedly left Malaysia due to safety concerns.⁴⁴ Ian MacKinnon, “Malaysia rejects convert’s bid to be recognised as Christian”, The Guardian, 30 May 2007 https://www.theguardian.com/world/2007/may/30/ianmackinnon

In 2023, members of the Bateq Mayah Orang Asli community in Pahang brought a legal challenge seeking to overturn their recorded status as Muslims. They argued that they were forced to convert to Islam and called on the court to rule that they are free to practice their own indigenous spiritual and cultural traditions. They claimed that they experienced intimidation and warnings and that, if they refused to convert, it could have resulted in the loss of their property and livelihoods.⁴⁵“137 Bateq Mayah tribe members go to court over forced conversion”, The Malaysian Insight, 27 March 2023 https://www.themalaysianinsight.com/s/434958 ;
V Anbalagan, “Orang Asli can challenge striking out of ‘unlawful conversion to Islam’ suit”, FMT, 9 October 2024 https://www.freemalaysiatoday.com/category/nation/2024/10/09/orang-asli-can-challenge-striking-out-of-unlawful-conversion-to-islam-suit;
Jason Santos, “Sabah Christians want justice for ‘forced Islamisation’ 38 years ago”, The Malaysian Insight, 27 July 2019 https://www.themalaysianinsight.com/s/171370 ;
“Jakim unaware of ‘Projek Cinta’, says minister”, FMT, 14 June 2023 https://www.freemalaysiatoday.com/category/nation/2023/06/14/jakim-unaware-of-projek-cinta-says-minister

In 2025, a 47-year-old Malaysian man attempted to return to Christianity after converting to Islam 14 years prior. His case was dismissed and the court stated he could apply again before the Sharia court, effectively putting him at risk of criminal prosecution. The cases underscore the systemic challenges faced by those seeking to convert from Islam.⁴⁶ “Federal Court rejects appeal by man seeking to leave Islam after converting for marriage” Malay Mail, 2 October 2025 https://www.malaymail.com/news/malaysia/2025/10/02/federal-court-rejects-appeal-by-man-seeking-to-leave-islam-after-converting-for-marriage/193160

Government threat to “hunt down” atheists

In August 2017, members of an atheist meetup group affiliated with the Atheist Republic Facebook page posed for a photograph at a social event in Kuala Lumpur. Those in attendance were smiling and making ‘peace’ signs towards the camera. The photograph was circulated widely online, leading to death threats and a government-led witch hunt against members of the group.

The government reportedly planned to launch a “detailed investigation” into whether any Muslims had joined the group. A Deputy Minister in the Prime Minister’s Department, Dr Asyraf Wajdi Dusuki, asked that the Malaysian Communications and Multimedia Commission (SKMM) intervene as the group involved “the faith of Muslims in the country.” He told reporters that “if it is proven that there are Muslims involved in atheist activities that could affect their faith, the state Islamic religious departments, or Jawi, could take action. I have asked for Jawi to look into this grave allegation.”⁴⁷ “Deputy Minister: Probe Underway on Muslims Joining Atheist Club”, Malay Mail, 6 August 2017. https://www.malaymail.com/news/malaysia/2017/08/06/deputy-minister-probe-underway-on-muslims-joining-atheist-club/1437125

A Minister in the Prime Minister’s Department, Datuk Seri Shahidan Kassim, said the public should aid authorities in locating groups, like the Kuala Lumpur affiliate of Atheist Republic, so that action could be taken.⁴⁸Kumar, Kamles, “Atheists in Malaysia Should Be Hunted Down, Minister Says.” Malay Mail, 8 August 2017 https://www.malaymail.com/news/malaysia/2017/08/08/atheists-in-malaysia-should-be-hunted-down-minister-says/1438403

“The (Federal Constitution) does not mention atheists. It goes against the Constitution and human rights…I suggest that we hunt them down vehemently and we ask for help to identify these groups.”
— Datuk Seri Shahidan Kassim

The Inspector General of Police, Khalid Abu Bakar, also warned Muslims or Malays against attending such events. He declared that it was not their “right to attend” atheist events as they were against the Malaysian constitution. The Inspector General went on to say that “the police would scrutinise the existing laws to enable appropriate action to be taken should the atheist group cause anxiety for Muslims.”⁴⁹Hutt, David. “Beware the War Against ASEAN’s Atheists.” The Diplomat, 19 August 2017 https://thediplomat.com/2017/08/beware-the-war-against-aseans-atheists/;  “IGP: Muslims Attending Atheist Events May Face Syariah Charges.”, The Star, 17 August 2017. https://www.thestar.com.my/news/nation/2017/08/17/muslims-attending-atheist-events-may-face-syariah-charges-igp/

Claim that atheism is “unconstitutional”

Following the verbal attacks on the Atheist Republic meetup, the freedom to hold or to express atheist views was targeted by government ministers. It was claimed that atheism is “unconstitutional” and punishable under Sharia and sedition laws. This is purely a political interpretation, however, as legally there is no clause prohibiting atheism in the Constitution.⁵⁰ Kamles Kumar, “Putrajaya: Freedom of Religion Does Not Equal Freedom from Religion.” Malay Mail, 23 November 2017. https://www.malaymail.com/news/malaysia/2017/11/23/putrajaya-freedom-of-religion-does-not-equal-freedom-from-religion/1516855

LGBTI+ rights

In Malaysia, sexual contact between two people of the same gender is illegal. LGBTI+ rights are largely unrecognized in the country and there is extensive discrimination against LGBTI+ people, including state funding of so-called “conversion therapies.”⁵¹Human Rights Watch; Summary of stakeholders’ submissions on Malaysia, Human Rights Council
Working Group on the Universal Periodic Review, Forty-fifth session, 22 January–2 February 2024, A/HRC/WG.6/45/MYS/3 https://docs.un.org/en/A/HRC/WG.6/45/MYS/3

Sections 377A and B of the Penal Code,⁵²Malaysia. Penal Code (Act No. 574 of 1997), 7 August 1997. Refworld (National Legislative Bodies / National Authorities). (English). https://www.refworld.org/legal/legislation/natlegbod/1997/en/40022 a British colonial law, criminalizes consensual “carnal knowledge against the order of nature,” which is punishable by up to 20 years in prison and a mandatory whipping. Section 377D criminalizes outrages of decency. Sharia law at both the State and Federal level criminalize both same-sex activity as well as gender nonconformity.⁵³“Malaysia” chapter in World Report 2024 (Human Rights Watch, 2024) accessed June 2025 https://www.hrw.org/world-report/2024/country-chapters/malaysia Under the state-administered Sharia law, Liwat (sexual relations between men), musahaqah (sexual relations between women), and a ‘male person posing as a woman’ and a ‘female person posing as a man’ are also criminalized. Six states in Malaysia impose a maximum penalty of a RM 5,000 fine, three years of imprisonment and six strokes for musahaqah.

Under Prime Minister Anwar Ibrahim’s administration, there has been a noticeable intensification of anti-LGBTI+ rhetoric and actions. Authorities have expanded censorship powers and LGBTI+ individuals have been specifically targeted with discriminatory rhetoric and crackdowns. Levels of discrimination, hostility and violence towards sexual minorities are reported to be rising.⁵⁴Compilation of information prepared by the Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights, Human Rights Council, Working Group on the Universal Periodic Review, Forty-fifth session,
22 January–2 February 2024, A/HRC/WG.6/45/MYS/2
https://docs.un.org/en/A/HRC/WG.6/45/MYS/2

Numerous books, films and merchandise considered to promote an LGBTI+ lifestyle have been banned.⁵⁵ “Malaysia” chapter in 2023 Report on International Religious Freedom (U.S. Department of State, 2024) https://www.state.gov/reports/2023-report-on-international-religious-freedom/malaysia/ In 2023, the government banned the sale of watches and accessories by the Swiss watchmaker, Swatch, which had an LGBTI+ theme. The ban was imposed under Section 7 of the country’s Printing Presses and Publications Act,⁵⁶Akta 301, Akta mesin cetak dan penerbitan 1984, Kali terakhir dipinda 15 July 2012
https://www.moha.gov.my/images/maklumat_bahagian/PQ/AKTA301_AMCP.pdf;
Act 301 Printing Presses and Publications Act 1984, latest amendment 15 July 2012
https://www.moha.gov.my/images/maklumat_bahagian/PQ/Act301.pdf relating to items deemed as potentially “detrimental to public order, morality or security.”⁵⁷“ Malaysia bans Swatch ‘LGBTQ’ watches; owners, sellers face up to 3 years in jail”, The Straits Times, updated 10 August 2023 https://www.straitstimes.com/asia/se-asia/malaysia-bans-swatch-lgbtq-watches-owners-sellers-face-up-to-3-years-in-jail In the same year, the Ministry of Communications and Digital cut short the Good Vibes Festival following an onstage kiss between male band members of The 1975 who were protesting Malaysia’s anti-LGBTI+ laws.⁵⁸“Pop band The 1975’s set stopped in Malaysia after onstage kiss”, Aljazeera, 22 July 2023 https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2023/7/22/pop-band-the-1975s-set-stopped-in-malaysia-after-onstage-kiss

Muslim members of the LGBTI+ community are particularly targeted. According to the United States Commission on International Religious Freedom (USCIRF), in 2025 police and officers from the Federal Department for Islamic Development (JAKIM) raided a Halloween party in Kuala Lumpur for the local LGBTI+ community. They arrested only those whose identity cards identified them as Muslim. “Conversion therapy” camps (mukhayyams), which are organized by JAKIM, specifically target and force Muslim members of the LGBTI+ community to undergo “rehabilitation.”⁵⁹USCIRF, 2023 Annual Report of the U.S. Commission on International Religious Freedom https://www.uscirf.gov/sites/default/files/2023-05/Malaysia.pdf

Women’s rights

Corporal Punishment of Muslim Women

The Criminal Procedure Code prohibits caning women, however, Sharia law permits it. As a result, Muslim women are disproportionately vulnerable to caning, corporal punishment, and torture.

On 28 September 2018, a 30-year-old single mother who pleaded guilty to offering sexual services to a man, was ordered to be given six strokes of the cane and jailed for six months by the Sharia High Court in Terengganu. The prosecution was conducted by a Sharia prosecutor, while the woman had no legal representation.⁶⁰ “Single Mum Sentenced to Jail, Whipping for Prostitution.” Malaysiakini, 27 September 2018 https://www.malaysiakini.com/news/444898

In April 2018, two women in Terengganu were arrested for allegedly attempting to engage in sexual acts in a car. The women were later taken to the Sharia High Court where they were fined and caned six times each. The caning took place in front of up to 100 people.⁶¹“Women caned in Malaysia for attempting to have lesbian sex.” The Guardian, 3 September 2018. https://www.theguardian.com/world/2018/sep/03/women-caned-in-malaysia-for-attempting-to-have-lesbian-sex

Social control

Muslim women are particularly subject to discrimination and social control in Malaysia. Religious authorities, together with the police force, are known to conduct raids on hotels and make arrests for ‘khalwat’ (close proximity) between unmarried Muslims.⁶²Ida Lim, “Married Couple Sues JAWI after Traumatic Khalwat Raid (VIDEO).” Malay Mail, 17 February 2017 https://www.malaymail.com/news/malaysia/2017/02/17/married-couple-sues-jawi-after-traumatic-khalwat-raid/1317013 Although specific punishments for violation of khalwat vary from state to state, it is typically punishable by some combination of imprisonment up to two years, a fine of RM 3,000 (USD 940), or several strokes of the cane.

In 2023, stand-up comedian Siti Nuramira Abdullah was fined RM 8,000 (approximately USD 1,800) under section 298 of Malaysia’s Penal Code. The penalty followed a 2022 comedy performance in which she removed her headscarf on stage. She pleaded guilty to charges framed as “insulting Islam” and “wounding the religious feelings of others”, which allowed her to avoid a custodial sentence. Her husband was also fined RM 16,000 (USD 3,500), in place of an eight-month jail term, for posting a video of her performance online. The episode was emblematic of how women are often subject to public and online shaming when they do not conform to religious conceptions of “modesty.”⁶³”Malaysia” chapter in 2023 Report on International Religious Freedom (U.S. Department of State, 2024)  https://www.state.gov/reports/2023-report-on-international-religious-freedom/malaysia/

In January 2023, a woman who was involved in a car accident in Selangor state attempted to lodge a police report. As she was wearing shorts at the time, she was refused entry to the police station until she changed clothing.⁶⁴“Woman in shorts denied entry to police station.” Free Malaysia Today, 31 January 2023 https://www.freemalaysiatoday.com/category/nation/2023/01/31/woman-in-shorts-denied-entry-to-police-station In 2024, female athletes were banned from representing the state in diving competitions in Terengganu due to attire considered inappropriate by religious authorities.⁶⁵ “Terengganu’s restrictions can stifle female talent, says sports minister”, FMT, 28 August 2024 https://www.freemalaysiatoday.com/category/nation/2024/08/28/ministry-expresses-concern-over-terengganus-restrictions-on-female-athletes ;
“Yeoh: Terengganu ban on Muslim divers over attire ‘concerning’”, New Straits Times, 28 August 2024 https://www.nst.com.my/sports/others/2024/08/1097672/yeoh-terengganu-ban-muslim-divers-over-attire-concerning ;
“Putrajaya takes Terengganu female diving medallists under its wings after furore raised by PAS-led state govt”, MalayMail, 28 August 2024 https://www.malaymail.com/news/sports/2024/08/28/putrajaya-takes-terengganu-female-diving-medallists-under-its-wings-after-furore-raised-by-pas-led-state-govt/148435

Female Genital Mutilation

Female Genital Mutilation (FGM) is widely practiced in Malaysia. According to a 2012 study by Dr Maznah Dahlui, associate professor at the University of Malaya’s Department of Social and Preventive Medicine, as many as 93% of women surveyed had undergone the procedure. In 2009, the National Fatwa Council issued a fatwa making FGM mandatory. In response some medics started offering to perform the procedure in a bid for it to be carried out in a safe environment but many doctors and activists are fighting for a change in the law and the United Nations (UN) has called for the fatwa to be abrogated and for all forms of FGM to be prohibited.⁶⁶Manar Al Adam, “ Malaysia’s anti-FGM advocates: Leave our bodies alone”, Aljazeera, 7 February 2020 https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2020/2/7/malaysias-anti-fgm-advocates-leave-our-bodies-alone ; Compilation of information prepared by the Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights, Human Rights Council, Working Group on the Universal Periodic Review, Forty-fifth session,
22 January–2 February 2024, A/HRC/WG.6/45/MYS/2
https://docs.un.org/en/A/HRC/WG.6/45/MYS/2

In 2018, JAKIM published guidelines for the medicalization of the practice, aiming to standardize and regulate it within medical settings. This move has been criticized by international organizations which argue that medicalization does not eliminate the human rights concerns associated with FGM.⁶⁷Azrul Mohd Khalib, “Female Circumcision Is Wrong”, Code Blue, 15 February 2019 https://codeblue.galencentre.org/2019/02/female-circumcision-is-wrong-azrul-mohd-khalib/?utm_source;
“Malaysia”, Asia Network to End FGM, accessed June 2025 https://endfgmcasia.org/fgm-c-in-asia/malaysia.html?utm_source

In June 2024, the United Nations Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women (CEDAW) Committee report on Malaysia stressed that “female genital mutilation cannot be justified on religious grounds and constitutes a harmful practice to exert control over the bodies and sexuality of women and girls is in violation of the Convention, irrespective of whether or not these practices are performed within or outside a medical institution.”⁶⁸ UN Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women (CEDAW). “Concluding observations on the sixth periodic report of Malaysia (CEDAW/C/MYS/CO/6).” 6 June 2024. https://docs.un.org/en/CEDAW/C/MYS/CO/6

Raising women’s rights as a political issue

In 2019, Maria Chin Abdullah, a Member of Parliament (MP), was charged with contempt of court for publicly criticizing the Sharia courts’ unfavorable treatment of women. In 2022, the Sharia High Court sentenced her to seven days in prison. Ms Chin filed a petition appealing the decision and 70 politicians and MPs signed a joint statement expressing their concern with the charge. They asserted that the judiciary must not be immune from criticism or accountability. In June 2025, the Federal Court dismissed Ms Chin’s appeal, effectively ending her ability to challenge the Sharia High Court sentence.⁶⁹ “Malaysia” chapter in 2023 Report on International Religious Freedom (U.S. Department of State, 2024)  https://www.state.gov/reports/2023-report-on-international-religious-freedom/malaysia/;
“Maria Chin Case: Syariah Court Acts in Line With Malaysia’s Legal Framework – Mohd Na’im”, Bernama, 26 June 2025 https://bernama.com/en/news.php?id=2438710

In 2014, a fatwa was issued against Sisters in Islam, a civil society group working to promote the rights of Muslim women. The fatwa declared that the organization and “any individuals, organizations and institutions holding on to liberalism and religious pluralism” are deviant from Islamic teachings. In 2019, the High Court dismissed a challenge by the organization and it was upheld in 2023.⁷⁰“Malaysia” chapter in 2023 Report on International Religious Freedom (U.S. Department of State, 2024) 2023  https://www.state.gov/reports/2023-report-on-international-religious-freedom/malaysia/; Ida Lim, “‘Deviant’ or not? Sisters in Islam awaits Federal Court verdict today on Selangor fatwa.” Malay Mail, 19 June 2025 https://www.malaymail.com/news/malaysia/2025/06/19/deviant-or-not-sisters-in-islam-awaits-federal-court-verdict-today-on-selangor-fatwa/180799 However, in a landmark decision in June 2025, the Federal Court ruled that the fatwa could not be applied to Sisters in Islam as it is registered as a company and not a person professing the religion of Islam.⁷¹Hidir Reduan, “SIS not bound by fatwa, Federal Court rules in landmark judgment.” New Straits Times, 19 June 2025 https://www.nst.com.my/news/crime-courts/2025/06/1232871/updated-sis-not-bound-fatwa-federal-court-rules-landmark-judgment

Freedom of expression, advocacy of humanist values

The Constitution provides protections for freedom of expression, assembly, and association under Article 10. However, these protections are not absolute, and are subject to wide-ranging exemptions enumerated in several articles.

Freedom of expression is constitutionally guaranteed but severely restricted in practice. For example, Article 10 includes a provision which allows Parliament to pass laws that restrict these freedoms in the interest of public order, morality and security. The freedoms are further restricted by several other articles, most notably Article 153, which grants the King of Malaysia powers to “safeguard the special position of the Malays.” Discussion of these articles, even by members of Parliament, is illegal.

Pervasive Sharia and “blasphemy”

Offenses relating to religion are outlined in Malaysia’s Penal Code. Convictions can result in prison sentences of up to two years or a fine. Prison terms can be increased to up to 20 years if there is physical harm or damage to property.⁷²“Malaysia” chapter in 2023 Report on International Religious Freedom (U.S. Department of State, 2024)  https://www.state.gov/reports/2023-report-on-international-religious-freedom/malaysia/ The offences are found under Article 295 “injuring or defiling a place of worship,” Article 296 “disturbing a religious assembly,” Article 298 “uttering words with deliberate intent to wound the religious feelings of any person,” and Article 298A “causing… disharmony, disunity, or feelings of enmity, hatred or ill will, or prejudicing…the maintenance of harmony or unity, on grounds of religion.” A 3R (race, religion and royalty) task force was formed by the Royal Malaysia Police (RMP) in 2023 which is aimed at investigating complaints of insults to race, religion and royalty. The Inspector-General of Police declared that the task force would undertake “strict action” against those who disrupt “harmony and public order.”⁷³“‘3R’ issues can disrupt harmony if not tackled properly, says IGP”, FMT, 18 May 2023 https://www.freemalaysiatoday.com/category/nation/2023/05/18/3r-issues-can-disrupt-harmony-if-not-tackled-properly-says-igp

In 2024, the film Mentega Terbang, which deals with religion and grief, was banned under the Film Censorship Act⁷⁴Malaysia. Film Censorship Act 2002 (Act 620). (English / Malay) https://right2know.my/wp-content/uploads/2016/03/620-akta-penapisan-filem-2002.pdf following condemnation and threats from religious conservatives.⁷⁵“Malaysia” chapter in World Report 2024 (Human Rights Watch, 2024) accessed June 2025 https://www.hrw.org/world-report/2024/country-chapters/malaysia Both the film’s director and producer were subsequently charged for “wounding religious feelings.” The filmmakers requested a judicial review against the government’s banning of the film and appealed their charges. However, the judicial review and appeal were dismissed and the criminal case is ongoing at the time of writing.⁷⁶“Malaysia” chapter, Amnesty International Report 2024/25 (Amnesty International, 2025) https://www.amnesty.org/en/location/asia-and-the-pacific/south-east-asia-and-the-pacific/malaysia/report-malaysia/; “Court of Appeal bins ‘Mentega Terbang’ filmmakers’ legal challenge.” Malaysiakini, 1 July 2025 https://www.malaysiakini.com/news/747712; “High Court dismisses judicial review bid over ‘Mentega Terbang’ ban, upholds govt decision on screening and publicity.” Malay Mail, 6 January 2025 https://www.malaymail.com/news/malaysia/2025/01/06/high-court-dismisses-judicial-review-bid-over-mentega-terbang-ban-upholds-govt-decision-on-screening-and-publicity/162224

The states of Kedah and Selangor maintain bans on non-Muslims using the word of “Allah” under decrees by their Sultans, who hold religious authority. Both Kedah and Selangor’s Sultans issued decrees in 2021 declaring “Allah” as exclusive to Muslims in the state and prohibiting non-Muslims from using the word. The decrees followed a decision by the Kuala Lumpur High Court that ruled that a 1986 federal regulation banning the use of the word “Allah” by non-Muslims was unconstitutional.⁷⁷ Iman Muttaqin Yusof and Ili Shazwani, “Malaysian govt withdraws appeal against ruling allowing non-Muslims to use word ‘Allah’”, Benar News, 15 May 2023 https://www.benarnews.org/english/news/malaysian/malaysia-govt-drops-appeal-against-word-allah-05152023123652.html; “Malaysia” chapter in 2023 Report on International Religious Freedom (U.S. Department of State, 2024) https://www.state.gov/reports/2023-report-on-international-religious-freedom/malaysia/

Media freedoms

State broadcasters and publishers reflect government views. Most private publishers and broadcasters are controlled by political parties or business groups allied with the government, and they generally censor programming according to government guidelines. Books and films are directly censored or banned for profanity, violence, and political and religious material, as well as pro-LGBTI+ content.⁷⁸Malaysia” chapter in Freedom in the World 2024 (Freedom House, 2024)  https://freedomhouse.org/country/malaysia/freedom-world/2024

While there have been some steps towards reform, repressive laws still hold; in particular the Communications and Multimedia Act 1998,⁷⁹Malaysia. Communications and Multimedia Act 1998 (Act 588). Reprint (incorporating amendments up to 1 January 2006) https://importlicensing.wto.org/sites/default/files/members/91/Act%20No.588%20-%20Communications%20Multimedia%201998_01.01.2006.pdf [English]
https://www.komunikasi.gov.my/pdf/Akta_588.pdf [Malay] the Sedition Act 1948,⁸⁰Malaysia. Sedition Act 1948 (Act 15). Reprint (incorporating amendments up to 1 January 2006). (English / Malay) https://www.icnl.org/wp-content/uploads/Malaysia_SeditionMalay.pdf [English] https://mediamalaysia.net/wp-content/uploads/2010/05/Akta-15-Akta-Hasutan-1948.pdf [Malay] and the Printing Presses and Publications Act 1984. Despite promises by the government during the general election campaign of 2022 that it would revise laws restricting freedom of expression, these measures remain in force and continue to be used to limit critical speech, with public figures, artists, and ordinary internet users facing investigations or charges. In addition, amendments hurriedly passed at the end of 2024 to the Communications and Media Act further increased restrictions, reinforcing the use of these laws to suppress dissenting voices.⁸¹“Malaysia” chapter, Amnesty International report 2024/25 (Amnesty International, 2025) https://www.amnesty.org/en/location/asia-and-the-pacific/south-east-asia-and-the-pacific/malaysia/report-malaysia/

Freedom of Assembly

The Peaceful Assembly Act 2012,⁸²Malaysia. Peaceful Assembly Act 2012 (Act 736) (Date of Royal Assent: 30 January 2012; Gazette publication: 9 February 2012).  https://www.rightofassembly.info/assets/downloads/2012_Peaceful_Assembly_Act_of_Malaysia.pdf [English] https://www.icnl.org/wp-content/uploads/Malaysia_Act-736-on-Peaceful-Assembly.pdf [Malay] is used by police to impose restrictions on protests and investigate those who participate in allegedly illegal protests. Over recent years there have been reports of activists being subjected to police harassment and criminal charges.

There is a large NGO sector in the country, including organizations who campaign for political reforms. Some NGOs have been denied registration or seen their registration revoked for political reasons.⁸³“Malaysia” chapter in Freedom in the World 2024 (Freedom House, 2024) accessed June 2025 https://freedomhouse.org/country/malaysia/freedom-world/2024

Sevan Doraisamy, Executive Director of the human rights organization Suara Rakyat Malaysia (SUARAM), has been subjected to ongoing judicial harassment – with over 20 police investigations during his 25 years of human rights work. These investigations have been related to organising public human rights forums and exposing alleged police abuses.⁸⁴International Federation for Human Rights (FIDH). “Malaysia: Judicial harassment against SUARAM members (Sevan Doraisamy).” https://www.fidh.org/en/issues/human-rights-defenders/malaysia-judicial-harassment-against-suaram-members-sevan-doraisamy

Highlighted Cases

In October 2019, writer and activist Maryam Lee reported that she had been summoned for questioning by the Selangor Islamic Religious Department (JAIS) under Section 58 (1) of the Syariah Criminal Procedure Enactment (Selangor) 2003. While JAIS failed to provide a reason for the order, Lee believes that it is connected to her book Unveiling Choice, which was published by Gerakbudaya Enterprise and launched on 13 April 2019. The book argues that Malay Muslim women should have the right to decide if they wish to wear a tudung. The discussion at the launch of the book garnered backlash on social media from individuals who had not attended the session, including the Minister for the Department for Religious Affairs. According to media reports, this backlash prompted JAIS to launch an investigation.⁸⁵“Malaysia: Concerns for Writer Summoned for Questioning” PEN International, 1 November 2019 https://www.pen-international.org/news/pr8p5hn5p6959bw2w8jkshg7abmodv

In March 2019, Alister Cogia (22 years old) was sentenced to almost 11 years imprisonment for blasphemy on social media, via his “Ayea Yea” Facebook account. Three others were being held without bail while awaiting trial for the same charges for “insulting Islam and the Prophet” under the Penal Code and Communications Act. Mohamad Yazid Kong Abdullah (52), owner of the “Yazid Kong” Facebook account, pleaded guilty after he was charged in the Criminal Sessions Court. Chow Mun Fai (43), operating Twitter account @ALVINCHOW333, faced eight charges. Danny Antoni (28), pleaded not guilty to two charges in relation to his personal Facebook account. Subsequently, in July 2020, Danny Antoni was sentenced to 26 months in prison for Facebook posts allegedly insulting the Prophet Muhammad and Islam. In a statement about the cluster of cases, Inspector-General of Police Fuzi Harun advised the public not to abuse social media by uploading or sharing any form of provocation touching on religious or racial sensitivities.⁸⁶“Man Jailed 10 Years for Insulting Islam and Prophet” Free Malaysia Today, 9 March 2019 https://www.freemalaysiatoday.com/category/nation/2019/03/09/1-jailed-another-pleads-guilty-and-2-charged-with-insulting-islam-and-prophet