Myanmar (Burma)

The northernmost country of South-East Asia, Myanmar was formerly known as Burma until 1989.¹The country was officially renamed Myanmar by the military regime in 1989, though this remains controversial with many ethnic minorities and activist groups that use its former name of Burma Occupied by the British from the early 19th Century, it gained independence in 1948. Since then the country has experienced numerous phases of conflict and instability and between 1962 and 2011 was tightly ruled by a military junta who repressed the country’s population and committed grave human rights abuses.

A gradual democratization process led the civilian National League for Democracy and its leader Aung San Suu Kyi to victory in the 2015 election. However, throughout this period the military retained significant constitutional privileges, including the control of several ministries and the right to appoint one fourth of the members of any representative assembly. In 2021, in response to a landslide election win by the National League for Democracy, the military under Min Aung Hlaing seized full control again through another coup d’état.

In response to the coup, millions of people across Myanmar joined in peaceful protests against the military junta with mass demonstrations and general strikes. These were met with brutal force by the security forces with protestors detained, tortured, or killed.²“Myanmar: Year of Brutality in Coup’s Wake”, Human Rights Watch, 28 January 2022 https://www.hrw.org/news/2022/01/28/myanmar-year-brutality-coups-wake Since then the country has been in a state of escalating civil conflict with millions of people displaced and thousands killed.³“Myanmar: Four years after coup, world must demand accountability for atrocity crimes”, Amnesty International, 31 January 2025 https://www.amnesty.org/en/latest/news/2025/01/myanmar-four-years-after-coup-world-must-demand-accountability-for-atrocity-crimes/ Shortly after the coup d’état a parallel civilian government, the National Unity Government (NUG) was formed which established a military wing called the People’s Defense Force (PDF) which has collaborated with local militia and ethnic armed organizations (EAOs). Following an escalation in the conflict in 2023, resistance forces now control large swathes of rural areas but have so far failed to overthrow the military regime.⁴“Myanmar”, Britannica, accessed June 2025 https://www.britannica.com/place/Myanmar ; “Myanmar Country Profile”, BBC, last updated 26 May 2023 https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-pacific-12990563

The estimated population of Myanmar is 54.8 million.⁵“Myanmar Population”, Worldometer, accessed 17 June 2025 https://www.worldometers.info/world-population/myanmar-population/ According to the 2014 Census (the latest internationally recognized census) an estimated 89.8% of the population is Buddhist, 6.3% Christian, 2.3% Islam, 0.5% Hindu, 0.8% Animist, 0.2% other religions, and 0.1% no religion.⁶The 2014 Myanmar Population and Housing Census, The Union Report: Religion, Census Report Volume 2-C, accessed June 2025
https://myanmar.unfpa.org/sites/default/files/pub-pdf/UNION_2C_Religion_EN.pdf The census excluded the Rohingya population from its count.⁷2023 Report on International Religious Freedom: Myanmar, US Department of State, accessed June 2025 https://www.state.gov/reports/2023-report-on-international-religious-freedom/burma/ (see more below)

Constitution and government

Myanmar’s 2008 Constitution⁸Constitution of the Republic of the Union of Myanmar 2008, accessed July 2025 https://www.moi.gov.mm/sites/default/files/general-pdf/2020-06/Con%20%26%20Repub%20%28Myanm%20%26%20Eng%29%20Big-1.pdf (BURMESE)
Constitution of the Republic of the Union of Myanmar 2008, accessed July 2025 https://www.myanmar-law-library.org/law-library/laws-and-regulations/constitutions/2008-constitution.html (ENGLISH) grants limited rights to freedom of religion or belief, and freedom of expression. However, some articles in the Constitution, as well as other laws and policies, restrict those rights. Since the 2021 coup d’état, the military junta has consistently ignored the Constitution. The ongoing state of emergency is widely regarded as unconstitutional by legal experts and Constitutional Tribunal judges were reportedly forced to resign – to then be replaced with judges appointed by the military junta.⁹ “Myanmar: Military Coup d’état violates principles of rule of law, international law and Myanmar’s Constitution”, International Commission of Jurists, 8 February 2021 https://www.icj.org/myanmar-military-coup-detat-violates-principles-of-rule-of-law-international-law-and-myanmars-constitution/ ;
Thibault Noel, Unconstitutionality of the 2021 Military Coup in Myanmar, (International Institute for Democracy and Electoral Assistance, 2022) https://www.idea.int/sites/default/files/publications/unconstitutionality-of-the-2021-military-coup-in-myanmar.pdf

Although the country has no official state religion, Article 361 of the Constitution notes that the government “recognizes the special position of Buddhism as the faith professed by the great majority of the citizens of the Union.” The Constitution also “recognizes Christianity, Islam, Hinduism, and Animism as the religions existing in the Union at the day of the coming into operation of this Constitution.”

The Constitution prohibits “the abuse of religion for political purposes” and members of any religious order are forbidden from running for public office or even from voting.¹⁰2023 Report on International Religious Freedom: Myanmar, US Department of State, accessed June 2025 https://www.state.gov/reports/2023-report-on-international-religious-freedom/burma/ However, the government has favored Theravada Buddhism through official propaganda and state support, including donations to monasteries and pagodas, encouragement of education at Buddhist monastic schools, and support for Buddhist missionary activities.

State-controlled media frequently depicts government officials and family members paying homage to Buddhist monks; offering donations at pagodas; officiating at ceremonies at new or restored pagodas; and organizing “people’s donations” of money, food, and uncompensated labor to build or refurbish Buddhist shrines nationwide. The government publishes books on Buddhist religious instruction. However, Buddhist monks have at times also campaigned for reforms, most notably during the 2007 protests. Therefore, the government also tightly controls it, forbidding political activity by Buddhist monks, and keeping Buddhist temples and monasteries under close surveillance.

Religious recognition

All religious or secular organizations must by law register with the government in order to obtain official status. This enables organizations to own land, obtain construction permits, and conduct religious activities. Failing to register could result in a prison term of up to five years or a fine of more than 5 million kyat ($1,500) or both.¹¹ 2023 Report on International Religious Freedom: Myanmar, US Department of State, accessed June 2025 https://www.state.gov/reports/2023-report-on-international-religious-freedom/burma/

The law prohibits any organization of Buddhist monks other than the nine state-recognized monastic orders. Those who break the law face immediate public defrocking and criminal penalties. The Ministry of Religious Affairs and Culture only allows non-Buddhist religious teachings in government-approved buildings and has banned prayer services and religious teaching in private homes.

The 47 member government appointed State Sangha Maha Nayaka Committee (Ma Ha Na or SSMNC) oversees Buddhist affairs and religious interpretation.¹² 2023 Report on International Religious Freedom: Myanmar, US Department of State, accessed June 2025 https://www.state.gov/reports/2023-report-on-international-religious-freedom/burma/ Since the establishment of the SSMNC in 1980, Buddhist monks have been tried in Sangha courts for heresy, differing interpretations of Buddhist doctrine (adhamma), and deviations from monastic rules (avinaya). These religious courts, which regulate the conduct of monastic orders, are supported by state law enforcement, with imprisonment as the penalty for non-compliance and no avenue for appeal.¹³Crosby, J. A. (Volume 18, 2017). Heresy and Monastic Malpractice in the Buddhist Court Cases (Vinicchaya) of Modern Burma (Myanmar). An Interdisciplinary Journal

One such example is the case of Venerable Nyar Na who faced significant persecution for his heterodox views challenging core tenets of Theravada Buddhism, particularly the concepts of afterlife, pre-existence, and rebirth (samsara). In 1983, Venerable Nyar Na adopted sky-blue robes to distinguish himself and declared his departure from Theravada Buddhism, identifying as a non-Theravada Buddhist. Despite his assertion of founding a distinct sect, the SSMNCC accused him of establishing a new Theravada sect, which is constitutionally prohibited. Venerable Nyar Na was sentenced to prison several times between 1983 to 2016, serving a total of 16 years in prison. Even after his release, his teachings, known as “Present Karma Buddhism” or “Sky-blue Buddhism,” remain heavily censored in Myanmar. In 2016, the Minister of Religious Affairs and Culture publicly banned his doctrines due to their radical divergence from Theravada Buddhism, and his followers have been sued for attempting to republish or distribute Venerable Nyar Na’s interpretation of Buddhism.¹⁴Htet Naing Zaw “Religious Affairs Ministry to Take Legal Action Against Buddhist Sect”, The Irrawaddy, 12 December 2016 https://www.irrawaddy.com/news/burma/religious-affairs-ministry-to-take-legal-action-against-buddhist-sect.html ;
Hein Htet Kyaw, “Venerable Nyar Na: The Monk in Sky Blue Robe & His Censored Buddhist Anarchism in Burma”, libcom.org, 23 October 2024 https://libcom.org/article/venerable-nyar-na-monk-sky-blue-robe-his-censored-buddhist-anarchism-burma

Religious discrimination and persecution

Most senior leadership positions in the country are held by the Buddhist and ethnic Bamar majority. This includes the major political parties, the pre-2021 civilian government, and the military. Authorities discriminate against minority religious groups and have restricted their political and electoral rights, including through discriminatory citizenship, residency, and party registration laws.¹⁵ “Myanmar” chapter in Freedom in the World 2024 (Freedom House, 2024) accessed June 2025 https://freedomhouse.org/country/myanmar/freedom-world/2024

Citizens and permanent residents are required to carry government-issued National Registration Cards (NRCs), also known as Citizenship Scrutiny Cards, which permit holders to access services and prove citizenship. These identification cards usually indicate religious affiliation and ethnicity. Citizens are also required to indicate their religion on certain official application forms for documents such as passports, although passports themselves do not indicate the bearer’s religion. Members of many ethnic and religious minorities face problems obtaining NRCs.¹⁶ Australian Government Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade, DFAT Country Information Report Myanmar, (DFAT, 2025) https://www.dfat.gov.au/sites/default/files/country-information-report-myanmar.pdf

Muslims, in particular, face systematic discrimination and persecution. Authorities have been complicit in the setting up of “Muslim-free” villages and have reportedly amplified hate speech. Ultra-nationalist Buddhist groups, including the banned but very influential Ma Ba Tha, have encouraged boycotting of Muslim-run businesses and promoted anti-Muslim propaganda.¹⁷“Myanmar” chapter in Freedom in the World 2024 (Freedom House, 2024) accessed June 2025 https://freedomhouse.org/country/myanmar/freedom-world/2024 ;
Ioana Cismas, Marta Furlan, Piergiuseppe Parisi, Chris Rush, Ezequiel Heffes and Hasnaa El Jamali,
Considerations and Guidance for the Humanitarian Engagement with Religious Leaders (University of
York, 2023), accessed June 2025 https://static1.squarespace.com/static/5e624fe7ac1bea36a064929c/t/63c532089f167c409eb8649e/1673867787947/Religious+Leaders+%26+Humanitarian+Norms_Considerations+and+Guidance.pdf

Rohingya genocide

The persecution of Muslims in Myanmar has been most severe in the case of the Rohingya community. The Rohingya have been unable to claim citizenship since the enactment of the 1982 citizenship law¹⁸ ၁၉၈၂ခုနှစ်၊ ပြည်သူ့လွှတ်တော်ဥပဒေအမှတ် ၄
https://www.moi.gov.mm/laws/6083; Burma Citizenship Law 1982, accessed August 2025 https://natlex.ilo.org/dyn/natlex2/r/natlex/fe/details?p3_isn=87413 (ENGLISH) that requires one’s ancestors to have lived in the country before the start of British colonial rule in 1824. As a result, Rohingya have been denied secondary and tertiary education, and employment as civil servants. Rohingya couples have needed to obtain government permission to marry and faced restrictions on the number of children they could legally have. Authorities have also restricted their access to healthcare. A 2015 presidential decree revoked the temporary identification cards which had allowed Rohingya to vote, meaning that most Rohingya were unable to vote in the 2020 elections.¹⁹ “Myanmar” chapter in Freedom in the World 2024 (Freedom House, 2024) accessed June 2025 https://freedomhouse.org/country/myanmar/freedom-world/2024

In 2017, the military began its official campaign against the Rohingya in response to a series of attacks on its police stations by the Arakan Rohingya Salvation Army in October 2016.²⁰ “ Myanmar’s Rohingya Crisis Enters a Dangerous New Phase”, International Crisis Group, 7 December 2017 https://www.crisisgroup.org/asia/south-east-asia/myanmar/292-myanmars-rohingya-crisis-enters-dangerous-new-phase However, the targeting of Rohingya civilians had already led to a refugee crisis and roughly 200,000 Rohingya refugees were living in Bangladesh at the time. The military operations across the northern part of the state led to reports of killings, torture, rape, and the burning of villages, causing another 740,000 Rohingya to flee.²¹“Myanmar” chapter in Freedom in the World 2024 (Freedom House, 2024) accessed June 2025 https://freedomhouse.org/country/myanmar/freedom-world/2024 In response to these violations, the UN set up an Independent International Fact-Finding Mission on Myanmar (IIFFMM) whose findings established the scale and clear patterns of violations by the Myanmar military. The Mission’s final report called for the investigation and prosecution of the country’s top military leaders, including General Min Aung Hlaing, for genocide, crimes against humanity and war crimes.²²“Myanmar: UN Fact-Finding Mission releases its full account of massive violations by military in Rakhine, Kachin and Shan States”, UN Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights, 18 September 2018 https://www.ohchr.org/en/press-releases/2018/09/myanmar-un-fact-finding-mission-releases-its-full-account-massive-violations?LangID=E&NewsID=23575

The military’s actions continued to receive support from the democratically elected civilian government, with Aung San Suu Kyi defending it at the International Court of Justice (ICJ) in December 2019.²³“Transcript: Aung San Suu Kyi’s speech at the ICJ in full”, AlJazeera, 19 December 2019 https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2019/12/12/transcript-aung-san-suu-kyis-speech-at-the-icj-in-full Despite her efforts, the ICJ ordered Myanmar to prevent genocidal acts against the Rohingya people in 2020.²⁴ICJ – The Gambia v. Myanmar, Independent Investigative Mechanism for Myanmar, United Nations International Court of Justice, accessed June 2025 https://iimm.un.org/en/icj-gambia-v-myanmar#:~:text=In%20response%2C%20the%20ICJ%20issued,refrain%20from%20committing%20these%20acts. Although the 2021 coup and ensuing escalation of conflict has thwarted international efforts to document ongoing violence and hold those responsible to account, the International Criminal Court (ICC) has requested an arrest warrant for Senior General Min Aung Hlaing for the crimes against humanity of deportation and persecution of the Rohingya people.²⁵“Myanmar” Chapter, Amnesty International report 2024/25 (Amnesty International, 2025) https://www.amnesty.org/en/location/asia-and-the-pacific/south-east-asia-and-the-pacific/myanmar/report-myanmar/

Some EAOs operating in the country are also reported to target ethnic and religious minority groups in areas under their control.²⁶2023 Report on International Religious Freedom: Myanmar, US Department of State, accessed June 2025 https://www.state.gov/reports/2023-report-on-international-religious-freedom/burma/

Education and children’s rights

Public schools in Myanmar do not teach religious education but Buddhist-majority state schools do start the day with a Buddhist prayer.²⁷2023 Report on International Religious Freedom: Myanmar, US Department of State, accessed June 2025 https://www.state.gov/reports/2023-report-on-international-religious-freedom/burma/ Some schools or teachers may allow Muslim students to leave the classroom during this recitation, but there does not appear to be a centrally mandated exemption for non-Buddhist students.

The Ministry of Religious Affairs and Culture’s Department for the Perpetuation and Propagation of the Sasana (Buddhist teaching) oversees relations between the government and Buddhist monks and schools. There are 1,484 monastic or Dhamma schools, run by monasteries and nunneries across the country. They serve an estimated 4% of the total school-aged population. Those that are officially registered follow the official school curricula but also teach Buddhist culture and ways of life as part of their standard curricula.²⁸2023 Report on International Religious Freedom: Myanmar, US Department of State, accessed June 2025 https://www.state.gov/reports/2023-report-on-international-religious-freedom/burma/

Since the 2021 military coup, Myanmar’s education system has been devastated by the conflict. Attacks against schools have left many children dead or injured, sparking condemnation from other countries and the UN.²⁹Kaamil Ahmed, “Myanmar junta ‘bombing schools’, with 170 sites hit in past three years – report”, The Guardian, 20 July 2024 https://www.theguardian.com/global-development/article/2024/jul/20/myanmar-junta-bombing-schools-with-170-sites-hit-in-past-three-years-report;
Grant Peck, “An airstrike in central Myanmar kills up to 22 people at a bombed school, reports say” Associated Press, 12 May 2025
https://apnews.com/article/myanmar-airstrike-school-saigaing-resistance-military-00bcff30abb05c1210514b6adc5c6a7f The NUG and the EAOs have created a parallel education system in the areas under their control, taking over the running of thousands of schools. Their approach to education is decentralized and multi-lingual, as opposed to the junta’s centralized approach including restricting the use of ethnic minority languages as the medium of instruction.³⁰Eisuke Saito, Ja Htu Aung Zahkung, Han Ni Lwin, “ Myanmar’s education crisis deepens under military rule”, East Asia Forum, 313 December 2024 https://eastasiaforum.org/2024/12/13/myanmars-education-crisis-deepens-under-military-rule/

Family, community and society

Family law

Ethnicity and religion are closely bound in Myanmar. The period between the constitutional referendum in 2008 and the coup d’état in 2021 saw legislative efforts to marginalize non-Buddhists, despite the climate of liberalization. New legislation gained presidential assent in December 2014. A set of controversial “race and religious protection” laws have placed serious restrictions on family life.³¹“Burma: Four “Race and Religion Protection Laws” Adopted”, Library of Congress, accessed June 2025 https://www.loc.gov/item/global-legal-monitor/2015-09-14/burma-four-race-and-religion-protection-laws-adopted/

Women’s rights

Laws in Myanmar discriminate against women in relation to marriage, divorce, inheritance rights, custody and guardianship, and citizenship. Sexual and gender-based violence are used as war tactics and have been employed with impunity by the military as part of a strategy to intimidate, terrorize or punish civilian populations. In 2021, The Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights (OHCHR) noted that the situation of women and girls from minority groups was further marked by deeply held patriarchal attitudes in traditional culture and religious practices.³²Human Rights Council, Working Group on the Universal Periodic Review, Thirty-seventh session, 18–29 January 2021, Compilation on Myanmar, A/HRC/WG.6/37/MMR/2
https://documents.un.org/doc/undoc/gen/g20/306/09/pdf/g2030609.pdf

According to the Buddhist Women’s Special Marriage Law,³³မြန်မာဗုဒ္ဓဘာသာဝင် မိန်းမများ အထူးထိမ်းမြားခြင်းဆိုင်ရာ ဥပဒေ
(၂၀၁၅ ခုနှစ်၊ ပြည်ထောင်စုလွှတ်တော်ဥပဒေအမှတ် ၅၀)
https://natlex.ilo.org/dyn/natlex2/natlex2/files/download/103620/MMR103620%20Bur.pdf ;
Buddhist Women Special Marriage Law (Pyidaungsu Hluttaw Law No. 50/2015), accessed August 2025 https://natlex.ilo.org/dyn/natlex2/r/natlex/fe/details?p3_isn=103620 (ENGLISH) Buddhist women wishing to marry non-Buddhist men must submit an application. The law stipulates obligations that non-Buddhist husbands must observe, as well as penalties for non-compliance.³⁴ 2023 Report on International Religious Freedom: Myanmar, US Department of State, accessed June 2025 https://www.state.gov/reports/2023-report-on-international-religious-freedom/burma/

The patriarchal and restrictive nature of contemporary Theravada Buddhism promoted by the authorities in Myanmar is seen in the treatment of Buddhist nuns. It is generally believed within the Burmese Theravada Buddhist community that the full ordination of nuns (bhikkhuni) can no longer take place and present nuns are now simply referred to as novice nuns (thilashin).³⁵Hein Htet Kyaw, “ Political Buddhism, bhikkhuni, and gender apartheid in Burma”, The Freethinker, 17 January 2025 https://freethinker.co.uk/2025/01/political-buddhism-bhikkhuni-and-gender-apartheid-in-burma/ In 1998, Venerable Saccavadi, a highly accomplished thilashin (female renunciant) since the age of 21, was inspired by seeing fully ordained nuns in Sri Lanka during her Buddhist literature studies. Despite being told by Burmese monks in Sri Lanka that bhikkhuni ordination was prohibited for women, and facing their complaint to the SSMNC, Saccavadi and another thilashin, Guṇasārī Therī, were ordained as bhikkhunis in 2003. This marked the first such ordinations for Burmese women in modern times.³⁶ “Determined to Do It – the story of an early Theravada bhikkhuni”, Sutta Central, February 2021 https://discourse.suttacentral.net/t/determined-to-do-it-the-story-of-an-early-theravada-bhikkhuni/19035 Upon Saccavadi’s return to Myanmar in 2005 due to her father’s illness, the SSMNC initiated an investigation into her bhikkhuni status. Subsequently, Saccavadi was charged with ‘impersonating a monk’ and, following her father’s death, was summoned by the SSMNC. She was ultimately sentenced to five years imprisonment in Insein prison.³⁷Christine Tooomey, “The Story of One Burmese Nun”, Tricycle: The Buddhist Review, 2016 https://tricycle.org/magazine/story-one-burmese-nun/

Population Control

The 2015 Population Control Health Care Law allows authorities to impose three-year birth spacing in areas with rapid population growth. The law was drafted following pressure from ultra-nationalist Buddhists expressing anti-Muslim sentiments. Human Rights activists objected to the law claiming that it repressed women’s sexual and reproductive health rights as well as the rights of religious and ethnic minorities.³⁸ “Controversial population control bill becomes law in Myanmar”, Deutsche Welle, 23 May 2015 https://www.dw.com/en/controversial-population-control-bill-becomes-law-in-myanmar/a-18472590

Apostasy

Apostasy is permitted but restricted through an application and approval process. According to the Religious Conversions Law,³⁹Religious Conversions Law (Law No. 48/2015), accessed August 2025 https://natlex.ilo.org/dyn/natlex2/r/natlex/fe/details?p3_isn=112532 (ENGLISH)
https://www.burmalibrary.org/sites/burmalibrary.org/files/obl/docs21/2015-08-26-Law_Concerning_Religious_Conversion-48-bu.pdf (BURMESE) the application process is overseen by a township-level Religious Board for Religious Conversion. However, many townships do not have conversion boards and the law is reportedly rarely applied. In theory applicants must be over 18 years old and must undergo a waiting period of up to 180 days after which time, if the applicant still wishes to convert, the board issues a certificate of religious conversion.⁴⁰ 2023 Report on International Religious Freedom: Myanmar, US Department of State, accessed June 2025 https://www.state.gov/reports/2023-report-on-international-religious-freedom/burma/

Freedom of expression, advocacy of humanist values

Freedoms of association, assembly and expression had increased during the transition from military to civilian rule. The government passed a media law in 2013 that liberalized censorship laws, loosened internet restrictions, and granted rights to journalists.⁴¹ Article 19, Myanmar News Media Law 2014, accessed June 2025 https://www.article19.org/data/files/medialibrary/37623/News-Media-Law-Myanmar-EN.pdf However, legal vagueness has been a persistent problem for the implementation of such laws in practice. The 2008 Constitution grants citizens the right to “express and publish freely their convictions and opinions” in Article 354; however, it also makes these rights subject to adherence to “community peace and tranquility” and “public order and morality.” This legal vagueness enables intervention by government actors. The prospect of comprehensive reforms to the legal system have collapsed since the 2021 coup d’état and the imposition of a state of emergency that has been repeatedly extended.

The military junta has complete control of the media in the country and all private broadcasters were taken off air following the coup. Internet access is severely restricted and monitored, including access to social media platforms and news outlets. Some news coverage is still provided from outlets operating in hiding or from outside the country. However, the military government has been actively blocking the use of VPNs that are often used to access external content.⁴²“Myanmar” chapter in Freedom in the World 2024 (Freedom House, 2024) accessed June 2025 https://freedomhouse.org/country/myanmar/freedom-world/2024 According to Reporters Without Borders:

“With significant risks of being tortured, jailed, or murdered, journalism is an extremely dangerous profession in Myanmar, which has become one of the world’s biggest jailers of journalists, second only to China – and, relative to its population, by far the country that imprisons its journalists the most. The few accounts emerging from Myanmar’s jails reveal extremely harsh conditions and systemic use of torture. In some cases, these abuses lead to the death of journalists, adding to the long list of those killed by the junta. Myanmar journalists are also targeted by ethnic armed organizations and anti-junta resistance forces when reporting from their regions. These groups often pressure journalists not to expose violations or negative actions, resorting to threats to suppress unfavorable coverage.”⁴³“Myanmar”, Reporters Without Borders, accessed June 2025 https://rsf.org/en/country/myanmar

Freedom of Assembly and Association

Following the coup, the military banned all gatherings of more than five people, put a strict curfew in place, and started using lethal and indiscriminate force against peaceful protesters. Hundreds of protestors have died and thousands have been arrested. As a result, mass protests have become much less common.⁴⁴“Myanmar” chapter in Freedom in the World 2024 (Freedom House, 2024) accessed June 2025 https://freedomhouse.org/country/myanmar/freedom-world/2024

The right to freedom of association has also been severely restricted. A 2022 law provides a penalty of up to five years in prison for organizations that fail to register. However, many civil society organizations choose not to do so as it would require them to provide substantial information to the authorities which would put individuals at risk of being targeted by the military.⁴⁵2023 Report on International Religious Freedom: Myanmar, US Department of State, accessed June 2025 https://www.state.gov/reports/2023-report-on-international-religious-freedom/burma/ Many NGOs have been forced to shut down since the coup while others continue to operate by basing themselves at least partly outside the country.⁴⁶ “Myanmar” chapter in Freedom in the World 2024 (Freedom House, 2024) accessed June 2025 https://freedomhouse.org/country/myanmar/freedom-world/2024 Members of these organizations include some of the numerous refugees who have fled Myanmar to Thailand and India.⁴⁷ “Thailand”, UNHCR, accessed August 2025 https://www.unhcr.org/where-we-work/countries/thailand;
Tora Agarwala, “Thousands of refugees flee into India’s Mizoram state after clashes in Myanmar”, Reuters, 7 July 2025 https://www.reuters.com/world/asia-pacific/thousands-refugees-flee-into-indias-mizoram-state-after-clashes-myanmar-2025-07-07/

“Blasphemy” laws

Myanmar has several blasphemy laws including Section 295 (A) of the Penal Code,⁴⁸ Myanmar Penal Code, accessed August 2025 https://freeexpressionmyanmar.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/06/penal-code.pdf which prohibits:

“Deliberate and malicious acts intended to outrage religious feelings of any class by insulting its religion or religious beliefs.”

Those convicted could face up to two years in prison.

Additionally, Section 298 criminalizes:

“Whoever, with the deliberate intention of wounding the religious feelings of any person, utters any word or makes any sound in the hearing of that person or makes any gesture in the sight of that person or places any object in the sight of that person, shall be punished~ with imprisonment of either description for a term which may be extended to one year, or with a fine or with both.”

The enforcement of these standards is highly inconsistent. Blasphemy laws are mainly used to protect approved forms of Buddhism and prosecute non-Buddhists but are ignored in cases of Buddhist leaders who defame other religions.⁴⁹2023 Report on International Religious Freedom: Myanmar, US Department of State, accessed June 2025 https://www.state.gov/reports/2023-report-on-international-religious-freedom/burma/ Several politicians, activists and artists have received prison sentences for perceived insults to religion.⁵⁰“Myanmar”, End Blasphemy Laws, accessed June 2025 https://end-blasphemy-laws.org/countries/asia-central-southern-and-south-eastern/myanmar/

In April 2020, street artists Zayar Hnaung, Ja Sai and Naw Htun Aung were charged with ‘blasphemy’ under provision 295 (a) of the Penal Code for a mural painted to raise awareness of the Covid-19 pandemic. The painting was alleged to be blasphemous because the artists had portrayed the grim reaper wearing a robe that had the same color as the robes Buddhist monks in Myanmar wear. One of the artists, Zayar Hnaung, a Buddhist himself, apologized on Facebook and stated that they had no intention of insulting Buddhism with the mural. The mural was later painted over.⁵¹Myanmar: 3 Charged for COVID-19 Street Art”, Human Rights Watch, 8 April 2020 https://www.hrw.org/news/2020/04/08/myanmar-3-charged-covid-19-street-art;
Zaw Zaw Htwe, “ Artists Freed After Anti-Buddhist Claims Dropped Against COVID-19 Mural in Myanmar”, The Irrawaddy, 17 July 2020 https://www.irrawaddy.com/news/burma/artists-freed-anti-buddhist-claims-dropped-covid-19-mural-myanmar.html

In June 2020, a doctor was sentenced to 21 months in prison for insulting Buddhist monks. The court sentenced Kyaw Win Thant for violating Section 295 (a) of the Penal Code. According to reports, Thant criticized Buddhist monks on Facebook in response to the opposition of some monks to the Government’s proposal to teach sex education in school. Thant was arrested in May 2020 after hundreds of people gathered outside a monastery where Thant was present to apologize to the monks. Footage showed that the protestors were chanting “arrest him, or kill us”.⁵²“Myanmar jails doctor for insulting monks, Bangkok Post, 4 June 2020 https://www.bangkokpost.com/world/1929436/myanmar-jails-doctor-for-insulting-monks ;
“Myanmar doctor charged for insulting monks over sex education”, Reuters, 21 May 2020 https://www.reuters.com/article/us-myanmar-religion/myanmar-doctor-charged-for-insulting-monks-over-sex-education-idUSKBN22X1Y8/

In August 2023, 13 Burmese nationals and a Swiss citizen, including a 12-year-old girl, were arrested and detained for their roles in creating the film “Don’t Expect Anything!” that was disseminated on the YouTube channel, Isi Dhamma, in July of that year. The film criticized monks for not following Buddhist precepts. The junta claimed that the film contained “offensive and disrespectful language” and harmed Myanmar’s culture and Buddhist traditions. Monks opposed to the military regime defended the film arguing that Buddhism encourages critical thinking and discourages blind faith.⁵³ “Buddhist Monks Condemn Myanmar Junta for Arrests Over ‘Blasphemous’ Movie”, The Irrawaddy, 23 August 2023 https://www.irrawaddy.com/news/burma/buddhist-monks-condemn-myanmar-junta-for-arrests-over-blasphemous-movie.html

Testimony

“As an individual born into a mixed-faith household, identifying as an atheist and actively engaged in religious reformist advocacy in Myanmar, I have experienced the systemic obstacles faced by non-religious persons in the country. The process of registering a non-religious status on official documents—particularly National Identification Cards—is fraught with institutional resistance. I have faced significant complications in routine civil affairs. These barriers deter individuals such as myself from openly identifying as non-religious, reinforcing a climate of exclusion and administrative discrimination.”
– Hein Htet Kyaw