Myanmar (Burma)

The northernmost country of South-East Asia, Myanmar was formerly known as Burma until 1989.¹ Occupied by the British from the early 19th Century, it gained independence in 1948. Since then the country has experienced numerous phases of conflict and instability and between 1962 and 2011 was tightly ruled by a military junta who repressed the country’s population and committed grave human rights abuses.

A gradual democratization process led the civilian National League for Democracy and its leader Aung San Suu Kyi to victory in the 2015 election. However, throughout this period the military retained significant constitutional privileges, including the control of several ministries and the right to appoint one fourth of the members of any representative assembly. In 2021, in response to a landslide election win by the National League for Democracy, the military under Min Aung Hlaing seized full control through another coup d’état.

In response to the coup d’état, millions of people across Myanmar joined in peaceful protests against the military junta with mass demonstrations and general strikes. These were met with brutal force by the security forces with protestors detained, tortured, or killed.² Since then the country has been in a state of escalating civil conflict with millions of people displaced and thousands killed.³ Shortly after the coup d’état a parallel civilian government, the National Unity Government (NUG) was formed. It established a military wing called the People’s Defense Force (PDF) which has collaborated with local militia and ethnic armed organizations (EAOs). Following an escalation in the conflict in 2023, resistance forces now control large swathes of rural areas but have so far failed to overthrow the military regime.⁴

The estimated population of Myanmar is 54.8 million.⁵ According to the 2014 Census (the latest internationally recognized census) an estimated 89.8% of the population is Buddhist, 6.3% Christian, 2.3% Muslim, 0.5% Hindu, 0.8% Animist, 0.2% other religions, and 0.1% profess no religion.⁶ The census excluded the Rohingya population from its count.⁷

Constitution and government

Myanmar’s 2008 Constitution⁸ grants limited rights to freedom of religion or belief, and freedom of expression. However, some articles in the Constitution, as well as other laws and policies, restrict those rights. Since the 2021 coup d’état, the military junta has consistently ignored the Constitution. The ongoing state of emergency is widely regarded as unconstitutional by legal experts and Constitutional Tribunal judges were reportedly forced to resign – only to be replaced with judges appointed by the military junta.⁹

Although the country has no official state religion, Article 361 of the Constitution notes that the government “recognizes the special position of Buddhism as the faith professed by the great majority of the citizens of the Union.” The Constitution also “recognizes Christianity, Islam, Hinduism, and Animism as the religions existing in the Union.”

The Constitution prohibits “the abuse of religion for political purposes” and members of any religious order are forbidden from running for public office or voting.⁷ However, the government has favored Theravada Buddhism through official propaganda and state support, including donations to monasteries and pagodas, encouragement of education at Buddhist monastic schools, and support for Buddhist missionary activities.

Religious recognition

To obtain official status, registration is required for religious organizations. The status provides religious organizations with the legal authorization to conduct their activities, as well as obtain land titles and building permits for places of worship. Operating without official registration risks a sentence of up to five years or a hefty fine of 5 million kyat ($1,500), or both.¹⁰

Theravada Buddhist monastic orders are recognized by the government in Myanmar. The 1990 Law Relating to the Sangha Organization¹¹ bans any organization of Buddhist monks outside those state-recognized orders. Violations can result in criminal penalties and an immediate public defrocking.¹⁰

The 47 member government appointed State Sangha Maha Nayaka Committee (Ma Ha Na or SSMNC) oversees Buddhist affairs and religious interpretation.¹⁰ Since the establishment of the SSMNC in 1980, Buddhist monks have been tried in Sangha courts for heresy, differing interpretations of Buddhist doctrine (adhamma), and deviations from monastic rules (avinaya). These religious courts, which regulate the conduct of monastic orders, are supported by state law enforcement, with imprisonment being the penalty for non-compliance and there being no avenue for appeal.¹²

One such example is the case of Venerable Nyar Na who faced significant persecution for heterodox views that challenged core tenets of Theravada Buddhism, particularly concepts related to the afterlife, pre-existence, and rebirth (samsara). In 1983, Venerable Nyar Na adopted sky-blue robes to mark his departure from Theravada Buddhism, and to identify as a non-Theravada Buddhist. The State Sangha Maha Nayaka Committee (SSMNC) subsequently accused him of establishing a new Theravada sect, which authorities treated as impermissible under Myanmar’s monastic regulatory framework. He was sentenced to prison several times between 1983 and 2016, serving a total of 16 years. Even after his release, his teachings, known as “Present Karma Buddhism” or “Sky-blue Buddhism,” remain heavily censored in Myanmar. In 2016, the Minister of Religious Affairs and Culture publicly banned his doctrines, stating that they radically diverged from Theravada Buddhism. His followers have also faced legal action for attempting to republish or distribute his interpretation of Buddhism.¹³

Religious discrimination and persecution

Most senior leadership positions in the country are held by the Buddhist and ethnic Bamar majority. This includes the major political parties, the pre-2021 civilian government, and the military. Authorities have discriminated against minority religious groups and have restricted their political and electoral rights, including through discriminatory citizenship, residency, and party registration laws.¹⁴

Access to services and proof of citizenship commonly depend on National Registration Cards (NRCs), also known as Citizenship Scrutiny Cards. These cards typically record both ethnicity and religious affiliation. While passports themselves do not display religion, applicants are often still asked to state their religion on certain official forms. Many ethnic and religious minorities face persistent barriers when trying to obtain NRCs. ¹⁵

Muslims, in particular, face systematic discrimination and persecution. Authorities have been complicit in the setting up of “Muslim-free” villages and have reportedly amplified hate speech. Ultra-nationalist Buddhist groups, including the banned but very influential Ma Ba Tha, have encouraged boycotting of Muslim-run businesses and promoted anti-Muslim propaganda.¹⁶

Rohingya genocide

The persecution of Muslims in Myanmar has been most severe in the case of the Rohingya community. The Rohingya have been unable to claim citizenship since the enactment of the 1982 citizenship law¹⁷ that requires one’s ancestors to have lived in the country before the start of British colonial rule in 1824. As a result, Rohingya have been denied secondary and tertiary education, and employment as civil servants. Rohingya couples have needed to obtain government permission to marry and faced restrictions on the number of children they could legally have. Authorities have also restricted their access to healthcare. A 2015 presidential decree revoked the temporary identification cards which had allowed Rohingya to vote, meaning that most Rohingya were unable to vote in the 2020 elections.¹⁴

In 2017, the military began its official campaign against the Rohingya in response to a series of attacks on its police stations by the Arakan Rohingya Salvation Army in October 2016.¹⁸ However, the targeting of Rohingya civilians had already led to a refugee crisis and roughly 200,000 Rohingya refugees were living in Bangladesh at the time. The military operations across the northern part of the state led to reports of killings, torture, rape, and the burning of villages, causing another 740,000 Rohingya to flee.¹⁹ In response to these violations, the UN set up an Independent International Fact-Finding Mission on Myanmar (IIFFMM) whose findings established the scale and clear patterns of violations by the Myanmar military. The Mission’s final report called for the investigation and prosecution of the country’s top military leaders, including General Min Aung Hlaing, for genocide, crimes against humanity and war crimes.²⁰

The military’s actions continued to receive support from the democratically elected civilian government, with Aung San Suu Kyi defending it at the International Court of Justice (ICJ) in December 2019.²¹ Despite her efforts, the ICJ ordered Myanmar to prevent genocidal acts against the Rohingya people in 2020.²² Although the 2021 coup and ensuing escalation of conflict has thwarted international efforts to document ongoing violence and hold those responsible to account, the International Criminal Court (ICC) has requested an arrest warrant for Senior General Min Aung Hlaing for the crimes against humanity of deportation and persecution of the Rohingya people.²³

Some EAOs operating in the country are also reported to have targeted ethnic and religious minority groups in areas under their control.²⁴

Education and children’s rights

Public schools in Myanmar typically begin the day with a Buddhist prayer and some schools or teachers may allow Muslim students to leave the classroom during the recitation. However, there does not appear to be a centrally mandated exemption for non-Buddhist students.⁷

The Ministry of Religious Affairs and Culture’s Department for the Perpetuation and Propagation of the Sasana (Buddhist teaching) oversees relations between the government and Buddhist monks and schools. While religious education is not included in public schools, there are 1,484 monastic or Dhamma schools across the country. They serve an estimated 4% of the total school-aged population. The officially registered schools follow the official school curricula but also teach Buddhist culture and ways of life.⁷

Since the 2021 military coup d’état, Myanmar’s education system has been devastated by the conflict. Attacks against schools have left many children dead or injured, sparking condemnation from other countries and the UN.²⁵ The NUG and the EAOs have created a parallel education system in the areas under their control, taking over the running of thousands of schools. Their approach to education is decentralized and multi-lingual, as opposed to the junta’s centralized approach which restricts the use of ethnic minority languages.²⁶

Family, community and society

Family law

Ethnicity and religion are closely bound in Myanmar. The period between the constitutional referendum in 2008 and the coup d’état in 2021 saw legislative efforts to marginalize non-Buddhists, despite the climate of liberalization. New legislation gained presidential assent in December 2014. A set of controversial “race and religious protection” laws have placed serious restrictions on family life.²⁷

Women’s rights

Laws in Myanmar discriminate against women in relation to marriage, divorce, inheritance rights, custody and guardianship, and citizenship. Sexual and gender-based violence are used as war tactics and have been employed with impunity by the military as part of a strategy to intimidate, terrorize or punish civilian populations. In 2021, The Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights (OHCHR) noted that the situation of women and girls from minority groups was further marked by deeply held patriarchal attitudes in traditional culture and religious practices.²⁸

According to the Buddhist Women’s Special Marriage Law,²⁹ Buddhist women wishing to marry non-Buddhist men must submit an application. The law requires non-Buddhist husbands to observe certain obligations and provides penalties for failing to do so.¹⁰

The patriarchal and restrictive nature of contemporary Theravada Buddhism promoted by the authorities in Myanmar is seen in the treatment of Buddhist nuns. It is generally believed within the Burmese Theravada Buddhist community that the full ordination of nuns (bhikkhuni) can no longer take place and present nuns are now simply referred to as novice nuns (thilashin).³⁰ In 1998, Venerable Saccavadi, a highly accomplished thilashin (female renunciant) since the age of 21, was inspired by seeing fully ordained nuns in Sri Lanka during her Buddhist literature studies. Despite being told by Burmese monks in Sri Lanka that bhikkhuni ordination was prohibited for women, and facing their complaint to the SSMNC, Saccavadi and another thilashin, Guṇasārī Therī, were ordained as bhikkhunis in 2003. This marked the first such ordinations for Burmese women in modern times.³¹ Upon Saccavadi’s return to Myanmar in 2005 due to her father’s illness, the SSMNC initiated an investigation into her bhikkhuni status. Subsequently, Saccavadi was charged with ‘impersonating a monk’ and, following her father’s death, was summoned by the SSMNC. She was ultimately sentenced to five years imprisonment in Insein prison.³²

Population Control

Human rights advocates have criticized the 2015 Population Control Health Care Law³³ as a restrictive measure that can disproportionately affect women and religious and ethnic minorities. The law empowers authorities to require three-year spacing between births in regions considered to be experiencing rapid population growth. The legislation was reportedly advanced amid pressure from ultra-nationalist Buddhist actors in a climate of anti-Muslim sentiment.³⁴

Apostasy

Under Myanmar’s Religious Conversions Law,³⁵formal conversion requires township-level approval, yet the procedure is reportedly uncommon in practice because many townships do not have a Religious Board for Religious Conversion. Where boards exist, applicants must be adults and undergo a waiting period that can extend to 180 days. A certificate is granted only if the applicant still wishes to convert when the waiting period ends.¹⁰

Freedom of expression, advocacy of humanist values

Freedoms of association, assembly and expression had increased during the transition from military to civilian rule. The government passed a media law in 2013 that liberalized censorship laws, loosened internet restrictions, and granted rights to journalists.³⁶ However, legal vagueness has been a persistent problem for the implementation of such laws in practice. The 2008 Constitution grants citizens the right to “express and publish freely their convictions and opinions” in Article 354; however, it also makes these rights subject to adherence to “community peace and tranquility” and “public order and morality.” This legal vagueness enables intervention by government actors. The prospect of comprehensive reforms to the legal system have collapsed since the 2021 coup d’état and the imposition of a state of emergency that has been repeatedly extended.

The military junta has complete control of the media in the country and all private broadcasters were taken off air following the coup d’état. Internet access is severely restricted and monitored, including access to social media platforms and news outlets. Some news coverage is still provided from outlets operating in hiding or from outside the country. However, the military government has been actively blocking the use of VPNs that are often used to access external content.³⁷ According to Reporters Without Borders:

“With significant risks of being tortured, jailed, or murdered, journalism is an extremely dangerous profession in Myanmar, which has become one of the world’s biggest jailers of journalists, second only to China – and, relative to its population, by far the country that imprisons its journalists the most. The few accounts emerging from Myanmar’s jails reveal extremely harsh conditions and systemic use of torture. In some cases, these abuses lead to the death of journalists, adding to the long list of those killed by the junta. Myanmar journalists are also targeted by ethnic armed organizations and anti-junta resistance forces when reporting from their regions. These groups often pressure journalists not to expose violations or negative actions, resorting to threats to suppress unfavorable coverage.”³⁸

Freedom of Assembly and Association

Following the coup d’état, the military banned all gatherings of more than five people, put a strict curfew in place, and started using lethal and indiscriminate force against peaceful protesters. Hundreds of protestors have died and thousands have been arrested. As a result, mass protests have become much less common.³⁹

The right to freedom of association has also been severely restricted. A 2022 law provides a penalty of up to five years in prison for organizations that fail to register with the government. However, many civil society organizations choose not to do so as it would require them to provide substantial information to the authorities which could put individuals at risk of being targeted by the military.⁷ Many NGOs have been forced to shut down since the coup d’état while others continue to operate by basing themselves at least partly outside the country.¹⁴ Members of these organizations include some of the numerous refugees who have fled Myanmar to Thailand and India.⁴⁰

“Blasphemy” laws

Myanmar has several blasphemy laws including Section 295 (A) of the Penal Code,⁴¹ which prohibits:

“Deliberate and malicious acts intended to outrage religious feelings of any class by insulting its religion or religious beliefs.”

Those convicted can face up to two years in prison.

Additionally, Section 298 criminalizes:

“Whoever, with the deliberate intention of wounding the religious feelings of any person, utters any word or makes any sound in the hearing of that person or makes any gesture in the sight of that person or places any object in the sight of that person, shall be punished~ with imprisonment of either description for a term which may be extended to one year, or with a fine or with both.”

The enforcement of these standards is highly inconsistent. Blasphemy laws are mainly used to protect approved forms of Buddhism and prosecute non-Buddhists but are ignored in cases of Buddhist leaders who defame other religions.⁷ Several politicians, activists and artists have received prison sentences for perceived insults to religion.⁴²

In April 2020, street artists Zayar Hnaung, Ja Sai and Naw Htun Aung were charged with ‘blasphemy’ under provision 295 (a) of the Penal Code for a mural painted to raise awareness of the Covid-19 pandemic. The painting was alleged to be blasphemous because the artists had portrayed the grim reaper wearing a robe that had the same color as the robes Buddhist monks in Myanmar wear. One of the artists, Zayar Hnaung, a Buddhist himself, apologized on Facebook and stated that they had no intention of insulting Buddhism with the mural. The mural was later painted over.⁴³

In June 2020, a doctor was sentenced to 21 months in prison for insulting Buddhist monks. The court sentenced Kyaw Win Thant for violating Section 295 (a) of the Penal Code. According to reports, Thant criticized Buddhist monks on Facebook in response to the opposition of some monks to the Government’s proposal to teach sex education in school. Thant was arrested in May 2020 after hundreds of people gathered outside a monastery where Thant was present to apologize to the monks. Footage showed that the protestors were chanting “arrest him, or kill us”.⁴⁴

In August 2023, 13 Burmese nationals and a Swiss citizen, including a 12-year-old girl, were arrested and detained for their roles in creating the film “Don’t Expect Anything!” that was disseminated on the YouTube channel, Isi Dhamma, in July of that year. The film criticized monks for not following Buddhist precepts. The junta claimed that the film contained “offensive and disrespectful language” and harmed Myanmar’s culture and Buddhist traditions. Monks opposed to the military regime defended the film arguing that Buddhism encourages critical thinking and discourages blind faith.⁴⁵

Testimony

“As an individual born into a mixed-faith household, identifying as an atheist and actively engaged in religious reformist advocacy in Myanmar, I have experienced the systemic obstacles faced by non-religious persons in the country. The process of registering a non-religious status on official documents—particularly National Identification Cards—is fraught with institutional resistance. I have faced significant complications in routine civil affairs. These barriers deter individuals such as myself from openly identifying as non-religious, reinforcing a climate of exclusion and administrative discrimination.”
– Hein Htet Kyaw

1. The country was officially renamed Myanmar by the military regime in 1989, though this remains controversial with many ethnic minorities and activist groups that use its former name of Burma[↩]
2. “Myanmar: Year of Brutality in Coup’s Wake”, Human Rights Watch, 28 January 2022 https://www.hrw.org/news/2022/01/28/myanmar-year-brutality-coups-wake [↩]
3. “Myanmar: Four years after coup, world must demand accountability for atrocity crimes”, Amnesty International, 31 January 2025 https://www.amnesty.org/en/latest/news/2025/01/myanmar-four-years-after-coup-world-must-demand-accountability-for-atrocity-crimes/ [↩]
4. “Myanmar”, Britannica, accessed June 2025 https://www.britannica.com/place/Myanmar ; “Myanmar Country Profile”, BBC, last updated 26 May 2023 https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-pacific-12990563 [↩]
5. “Myanmar Population”, Worldometer, accessed 17 June 2025 https://www.worldometers.info/world-population/myanmar-population/ [↩]
6. The 2014 Myanmar Population and Housing Census, The Union Report: Religion, Census Report Volume 2-C, accessed June 2025
   https://myanmar.unfpa.org/sites/default/files/pub-pdf/UNION_2C_Religion_EN.pdf [↩]
7. 2023 Report on International Religious Freedom: Myanmar, US Department of State, accessed June 2025 https://www.state.gov/reports/2023-report-on-international-religious-freedom/burma/ [↩][↩][↩][↩][↩][↩]
8. Constitution of the Republic of the Union of Myanmar 2008, accessed July 2025 https://www.moi.gov.mm/sites/default/files/general-pdf/2020-06/Con%20%26%20Repub%20%28Myanm%20%26%20Eng%29%20Big-1.pdf (BURMESE)
   Constitution of the Republic of the Union of Myanmar 2008, accessed July 2025 https://www.myanmar-law-library.org/law-library/laws-and-regulations/constitutions/2008-constitution.html (ENGLISH)[↩]
9. “Myanmar: Military Coup d’état violates principles of rule of law, international law and Myanmar’s Constitution”, International Commission of Jurists, 8 February 2021 https://www.icj.org/myanmar-military-coup-detat-violates-principles-of-rule-of-law-international-law-and-myanmars-constitution/ ;
   Thibault Noel, Unconstitutionality of the 2021 Military Coup in Myanmar, (International Institute for Democracy and Electoral Assistance, 2022) https://www.idea.int/sites/default/files/publications/unconstitutionality-of-the-2021-military-coup-in-myanmar.pdf [↩]
10. 2023 Report on International Religious Freedom: Myanmar, US Department of State, accessed June 2025 https://www.state.gov/reports/2023-report-on-international-religious-freedom/burma/ [↩][↩][↩][↩][↩]
11. Myanmar (State Law and Order Restoration Council). Law Relating to the Sangha Organization (State LORC Law No. 20/90, Oct. 31, 1990). (English / Burmese). Accessed January 18, 2026. https://www.icnl.org/wp-content/uploads/Myanmar_Law-Relating-to-the-Sangha-Organization.pdf
    https://www.moi.gov.mm/laws/6083 [↩]
12. Crosby, J. A. (Volume 18, 2017). Heresy and Monastic Malpractice in the Buddhist Court Cases (Vinicchaya) of Modern Burma (Myanmar). An Interdisciplinary Journal[↩]
13. Htet Naing Zaw “Religious Affairs Ministry to Take Legal Action Against Buddhist Sect”, The Irrawaddy, 12 December 2016 https://www.irrawaddy.com/news/burma/religious-affairs-ministry-to-take-legal-action-against-buddhist-sect.html ;
    Hein Htet Kyaw, “Venerable Nyar Na: The Monk in Sky Blue Robe & His Censored Buddhist Anarchism in Burma”, libcom.org, 23 October 2024 https://libcom.org/article/venerable-nyar-na-monk-sky-blue-robe-his-censored-buddhist-anarchism-burma [↩]
14. “Myanmar” chapter in Freedom in the World 2024 (Freedom House, 2024) accessed June 2025 https://freedomhouse.org/country/myanmar/freedom-world/2024 [↩][↩][↩]
15. Australian Government Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade, DFAT Country Information Report Myanmar, (DFAT, 2025) https://www.dfat.gov.au/sites/default/files/country-information-report-myanmar.pdf [↩]
16. “Myanmar” chapter in Freedom in the World 2024 (Freedom House, 2024) accessed June 2025 https://freedomhouse.org/country/myanmar/freedom-world/2024 ;
    Ioana Cismas, Marta Furlan, Piergiuseppe Parisi, Chris Rush, Ezequiel Heffes and Hasnaa El Jamali,
    Considerations and Guidance for the Humanitarian Engagement with Religious Leaders (University of
    York, 2023), accessed June 2025 https://static1.squarespace.com/static/5e624fe7ac1bea36a064929c/t/63c532089f167c409eb8649e/1673867787947/Religious+Leaders+%26+Humanitarian+Norms_Considerations+and+Guidance.pdf [↩]
17. ၁၉၈၂ခုနှစ်၊ ပြည်သူ့လွှတ်တော်ဥပဒေအမှတ် ၄
    https://www.moi.gov.mm/laws/6083; Burma Citizenship Law 1982, accessed August 2025 https://natlex.ilo.org/dyn/natlex2/r/natlex/fe/details?p3_isn=87413 (ENGLISH)[↩]
18. “ Myanmar’s Rohingya Crisis Enters a Dangerous New Phase”, International Crisis Group, 7 December 2017 https://www.crisisgroup.org/asia/south-east-asia/myanmar/292-myanmars-rohingya-crisis-enters-dangerous-new-phase [↩]
19. “Myanmar” chapter in Freedom in the World 2024 (Freedom House, 2024) accessed June 2025 https://freedomhouse.org/country/myanmar/freedom-world/2024 [↩]
20. “Myanmar: UN Fact-Finding Mission releases its full account of massive violations by military in Rakhine, Kachin and Shan States”, UN Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights, 18 September 2018 https://www.ohchr.org/en/press-releases/2018/09/myanmar-un-fact-finding-mission-releases-its-full-account-massive-violations?LangID=E&NewsID=23575 [↩]
21. “Transcript: Aung San Suu Kyi’s speech at the ICJ in full”, AlJazeera, 19 December 2019 https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2019/12/12/transcript-aung-san-suu-kyis-speech-at-the-icj-in-full [↩]
22. ICJ – The Gambia v. Myanmar, Independent Investigative Mechanism for Myanmar, United Nations International Court of Justice, accessed June 2025 https://iimm.un.org/en/icj-gambia-v-myanmar#:~:text=In%20response%2C%20the%20ICJ%20issued,refrain%20from%20committing%20these%20acts. [↩]
23. “Myanmar” Chapter, Amnesty International report 2024/25 (Amnesty International, 2025) https://www.amnesty.org/en/location/asia-and-the-pacific/south-east-asia-and-the-pacific/myanmar/report-myanmar/ [↩]
24. 2023 Report on International Religious Freedom: Myanmar, US Department of State, accessed June 2025 https://www.state.gov/reports/2023-report-on-international-religious-freedom/burma/ [↩]
25. Kaamil Ahmed, “Myanmar junta ‘bombing schools’, with 170 sites hit in past three years – report”, The Guardian, 20 July 2024 https://www.theguardian.com/global-development/article/2024/jul/20/myanmar-junta-bombing-schools-with-170-sites-hit-in-past-three-years-report;
    Grant Peck, “An airstrike in central Myanmar kills up to 22 people at a bombed school, reports say” Associated Press, 12 May 2025
    https://apnews.com/article/myanmar-airstrike-school-saigaing-resistance-military-00bcff30abb05c1210514b6adc5c6a7f [↩]
26. Eisuke Saito, Ja Htu Aung Zahkung, Han Ni Lwin, “ Myanmar’s education crisis deepens under military rule”, East Asia Forum, 313 December 2024 https://eastasiaforum.org/2024/12/13/myanmars-education-crisis-deepens-under-military-rule/ [↩]
27. “Burma: Four “Race and Religion Protection Laws” Adopted”, Library of Congress, accessed June 2025 https://www.loc.gov/item/global-legal-monitor/2015-09-14/burma-four-race-and-religion-protection-laws-adopted/ [↩]
28. Human Rights Council, Working Group on the Universal Periodic Review, Thirty-seventh session, 18–29 January 2021, Compilation on Myanmar, A/HRC/WG.6/37/MMR/2
    https://documents.un.org/doc/undoc/gen/g20/306/09/pdf/g2030609.pdf [↩]
29. မြန်မာဗုဒ္ဓဘာသာဝင် မိန်းမများ အထူးထိမ်းမြားခြင်းဆိုင်ရာ ဥပဒေ
    (၂၀၁၅ ခုနှစ်၊ ပြည်ထောင်စုလွှတ်တော်ဥပဒေအမှတ် ၅၀)
    https://natlex.ilo.org/dyn/natlex2/natlex2/files/download/103620/MMR103620%20Bur.pdf ;
    Buddhist Women Special Marriage Law (Pyidaungsu Hluttaw Law No. 50/2015), accessed August 2025 https://natlex.ilo.org/dyn/natlex2/r/natlex/fe/details?p3_isn=103620 (ENGLISH)[↩]
30. Hein Htet Kyaw, “ Political Buddhism, bhikkhuni, and gender apartheid in Burma”, The Freethinker, 17 January 2025 https://freethinker.co.uk/2025/01/political-buddhism-bhikkhuni-and-gender-apartheid-in-burma/ [↩]
31. “Determined to Do It – the story of an early Theravada bhikkhuni”, Sutta Central, February 2021 https://discourse.suttacentral.net/t/determined-to-do-it-the-story-of-an-early-theravada-bhikkhuni/19035 [↩]
32. Christine Tooomey, “The Story of One Burmese Nun”, Tricycle: The Buddhist Review, 2016 https://tricycle.org/magazine/story-one-burmese-nun/ [↩]
33. Population Control Law (2015) https://www.moh.gov.mm/?p=344 [↩]
34. “Controversial population control bill becomes law in Myanmar”, Deutsche Welle, 23 May 2015 https://www.dw.com/en/controversial-population-control-bill-becomes-law-in-myanmar/a-18472590 [↩]
35. Religious Conversions Law (Law No. 48/2015), accessed August 2025 https://natlex.ilo.org/dyn/natlex2/r/natlex/fe/details?p3_isn=112532 (ENGLISH)
    https://www.burmalibrary.org/sites/burmalibrary.org/files/obl/docs21/2015-08-26-Law_Concerning_Religious_Conversion-48-bu.pdf (BURMESE)[↩]
36. Article 19, Myanmar News Media Law 2014, accessed June 2025 https://www.article19.org/data/files/medialibrary/37623/News-Media-Law-Myanmar-EN.pdf [↩]
37. “Myanmar” chapter in Freedom in the World 2024 (Freedom House, 2024) accessed June 2025 https://freedomhouse.org/country/myanmar/freedom-world/2024 [↩]
38. “Myanmar”, Reporters Without Borders, accessed June 2025 https://rsf.org/en/country/myanmar [↩]
39. “Myanmar” chapter in Freedom in the World 2024 (Freedom House, 2024) accessed June 2025 https://freedomhouse.org/country/myanmar/freedom-world/2024[↩]
40. “Thailand”, UNHCR, accessed August 2025 https://www.unhcr.org/where-we-work/countries/thailand;
    Tora Agarwala, “Thousands of refugees flee into India’s Mizoram state after clashes in Myanmar”, Reuters, 7 July 2025 https://www.reuters.com/world/asia-pacific/thousands-refugees-flee-into-indias-mizoram-state-after-clashes-myanmar-2025-07-07/ [↩]
41. Myanmar Penal Code, accessed August 2025 https://freeexpressionmyanmar.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/06/penal-code.pdf [↩]
42. “Myanmar”, End Blasphemy Laws, accessed June 2025 https://end-blasphemy-laws.org/countries/asia-central-southern-and-south-eastern/myanmar/ [↩]
43. Myanmar: 3 Charged for COVID-19 Street Art”, Human Rights Watch, 8 April 2020 https://www.hrw.org/news/2020/04/08/myanmar-3-charged-covid-19-street-art;
    Zaw Zaw Htwe, “ Artists Freed After Anti-Buddhist Claims Dropped Against COVID-19 Mural in Myanmar”, The Irrawaddy, 17 July 2020 https://www.irrawaddy.com/news/burma/artists-freed-anti-buddhist-claims-dropped-covid-19-mural-myanmar.html [↩]
44. “Myanmar jails doctor for insulting monks, Bangkok Post, 4 June 2020 https://www.bangkokpost.com/world/1929436/myanmar-jails-doctor-for-insulting-monks ;
    “Myanmar doctor charged for insulting monks over sex education”, Reuters, 21 May 2020 https://www.reuters.com/article/us-myanmar-religion/myanmar-doctor-charged-for-insulting-monks-over-sex-education-idUSKBN22X1Y8/ [↩]
45. “Buddhist Monks Condemn Myanmar Junta for Arrests Over ‘Blasphemous’ Movie”, The Irrawaddy, 23 August 2023 https://www.irrawaddy.com/news/burma/buddhist-monks-condemn-myanmar-junta-for-arrests-over-blasphemous-movie.html [↩]