Bangladesh
Formerly part of India, and subsequently forming the eastern wing of Pakistan that was carved out of India in 1947 when British colonial rule ended; Bangladesh is located in the northeastern region of the Indian subcontinent, and has been independent since 1971. Following its independence, Bangladesh fell into authoritarianism until 1996, when Sheikh Hasina was first elected to office having campaigned for the re-establishment of democracy. However, the country’s last truly free and fair elections were held in 2008.1Salil Tripathi, “The question for Bangladesh: can it break the spell of its bloodstained history?”, The Guardian, 7 August 2024, https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/article/2024/aug/07/the-question-for-bangladesh-can-it-break-the-spell-of-its-bloodstained-history; Salil Tripathi, “Bangladeshi and British politics collided to bring down Tulip Siddiq”, The Guardian, 16 January 2025, https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2025/jan/16/tulip-siddiq-resignation-corruption-allegations-bangladesh
In August 2024, Prime Minister Sheikh Hasina’s increasingly authoritarian Awami League government was ousted following public demonstrations. An interim government headed by Nobel Laureate Mohammed Yunus promised accountability and reform. Despite the end of Hasina’s rule, security forces in some cases returned to patterns of abuse that were familiar under her administration.2 “Bangladesh” chapter in World Report 2025 (Human Rights Watch, 2025), https://www.hrw.org/world-report/2025/country-chapters/bangladesh[/ref]
According to the 2022 Census, 91% of the population are Muslim, 8% Hindu, the remaining 1% comprise Buddhists, Christians and other minority religious groups. The census does not record the number of non-religious people living in the country.[ref]Bangladesh Bureau of Statistics (BBS), “Bangladesh : Population and Housing Census Dataset”, Humanitarian Data Exchange, accessed 10 February 2025, https://data.humdata.org/dataset/populationa-and-housing-census-dataset
| Constitution and government | Education and children’s rights | Family, community, society, religious courts and tribunals | Freedom of expression advocacy of humanist values |
|---|---|---|---|
Constitution and government
Political turmoil and ongoing uncertainty
Since coming to power in 2009, Sheikh Hasina’s Awami League government gradually consolidated power. Her increasingly autocratic leadership became characterised by the harassment and arbitrary arrest of activists, crackdowns on protest – including the use of sweeping internet shutdowns – and the use of enforced disappearance against her opponents. Opposition parties have boycotted elections, including in January 2024, when Sheikh Hasina secured her fourth consecutive term in office.3Ali Riaz, “What Bangladesh’s widely boycotted election reveals about its future”, New Atlanticist, 18 January 2024, https://www.atlanticcouncil.org/blogs/new-atlanticist/what-bangladeshs-widely-boycotted-election-reveals-about-its-future/; Shola Lawal, “Bans and boycotts: The troubled history of Bangladesh’s elections”, AlJazeera, 5 January 2024, https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2024/1/5/bangladesh-elections-a-timeline-of-controversy; KRUTIKA PATHI, “Bangladesh’s democracy is strained as Hasina wins a 4th term in a boycotted, low turnout vote”, Associated Press, 9 January 2024, https://apnews.com/article/sheikh-hasina-awami-league-boycott-opposition-bangladesh-election-1506563c63b06166f800e8e89332b4e3
In August 2024, Sheikh Hasina’s government was ousted following its brutal repression of public demonstrations that began as peaceful student demonstrations against discriminatory and politicized quotas in government jobs, but transformed into nationwide protests calling for governmental reform. An interim government headed by Nobel Laureate Mohammed Yunus promised accountability and reform. However, Human Rights Watch reports that,
“Due to the deeply ingrained systemic obstacles to accountable governance, a disturbingly familiar pattern of security force abuses and political reprisals has reemerged, this time targeting perceived Awami League supporters.”4Julia Bleckner, After the Monsoon Revolution (Human Rights Watch, January 2025), https://www.hrw.org/report/2025/01/27/after-monsoon-revolution/roadmap-lasting-security-sector-reform-bangladesh
In the first months of governing, the interim government formed eleven commissions over two stages to make recommendations for reforms to the judiciary, the electoral system, public administration, police, the anti-corruption office, media, health, labor rights, and women’s rights and the Constitution.5Julia Bleckner, After the Monsoon Revolution (Human Rights Watch, January 2025), https://www.hrw.org/report/2025/01/27/after-monsoon-revolution/roadmap-lasting-security-sector-reform-bangladesh
Media reports indicate that the Constitutional Commission has recommended sweeping reforms to the Constitution that propose to establish a bicameral parliament, and to revise the fundamental principles of the State.6“Constitution reform: Sweeping changes in constitution”, Daily Star, 16 January 2025, https://www.thedailystar.net/news/bangladesh/politics/news/constitution-reform-sweeping-changes-constitution-3800181
From secularism to pluralism: current constitutional guarantees & proposed constitutional reform
The current 1972 Constitution of the People’s Republic of Bangladesh7Constitution of the Republic of Bangladesh, 1972, http://bdlaws.minlaw.gov.bd/act-367.html and other laws and policies provide for freedom of thought, conscience and religion, as well as freedom of opinion and expression. However, some laws and policies restrict freedom of religion or belief, as well as freedom of expression and media freedom.
Article 8 of the Constitution includes secularism as one of the four fundamental principles of the state used to guide the governance of the country, including in the creation of all laws. Article 12 elaborates on how secularism is to be ensured:
“The principle of secularism shall be realised by the elimination of –
(a) communalism in all its forms ;
(b) the granting by the State of political status in favour of any religion ;
(c) the abuse of religion for political purposes ;
(d) any discrimination against, or persecution of, persons practicing a particular religion.”
An amendment to the Constitution passed in 2011 established Islam as the state religion however, the article states “the State shall ensure equal status and equal right in the practice of the Hindu, Buddhist, Christian and other religions.” The Constitution includes further provisions elaborating on freedom of religion, making no reference to belief and therefore the non-religious (Article 41) and prohibits discrimination based on religion (Article 28).
Among key recommendations made by the Constitutional Reform Commission in January 2025, the commission recommended the deletion of articles 8 and 12 of the Constitution, among others. In response to concerns raised by some relating to the removal of the principle of secularism, the head of the commission Ali Riaz is reported to have dismissed the principle of secularism as a Western concept not fit for application in Bangladesh arguing that secularism as professed and practiced by the Hasina regime was “limited to toleration of religious diversity.” Riaz reportedly indicated that the inclusion of the term “pluralism” is wider in scope and therefore “more encompassing” of the country’s long tradition of pluralism – be it cultural, linguistic, religious, or ethnic.8Sudha Ramachandran, “Ali Riaz on Recommendations of Bangladesh’s Constitutional Reform Commission”, The Diplomat, 3 February 2025, https://thediplomat.com/2025/02/ali-riaz-on-recommendations-of-bangladeshs-constitutional-reform-commission/ Riaz stated,
“Pluralism, by definition, professes the coexistence of people of various backgrounds and ensures equal participation in social and political lives. It will not only address religious diversity such as Hindus, Buddhists, Ahmadis and Bahais but will also be inclusive to other marginalized sections of the people, such as Dalits and people of third gender. Interestingly, despite having secularism as a state principle, minority persecution went unabetted for decades.”9Sudha Ramachandran, “Ali Riaz on Recommendations of Bangladesh’s Constitutional Reform Commission”, The Diplomat, 3 February 2025, https://thediplomat.com/2025/02/ali-riaz-on-recommendations-of-bangladeshs-constitutional-reform-commission/
Under the recommendations, the Constitution would retain Islam as the State religion. In justifying this recommendation, Riaz referred to consultations with stakeholders, including 50,000 survey responses, as well as the existence of a State religion or reference to “faith in Almighty” in over 80 countries across the globe. He stated,
“The Bangladeshi state’s relationship with religion under the revised constitution as recommended by the [Constitutional Reform Commission] would not be different from past decades. Until religion acts as the source of legal measures or challenges the politico-legal institutions, there are few reasons to be alarmed. Often state religions are more symbolic than substantive.”10Sudha Ramachandran, “Ali Riaz on Recommendations of Bangladesh’s Constitutional Reform Commission”, The Diplomat, 3 February 2025, https://thediplomat.com/2025/02/ali-riaz-on-recommendations-of-bangladeshs-constitutional-reform-commission/
In addition to the replacement of secularism with pluralism as a fundamental principle of the nation, the interim government’s constitutional reform commission has recommended expanding the scope of fundamental rights and ensuring their constitutional protection through a comprehensive charter “fundamental rights and liberty.” The commission has recommended the inclusion of the right to food, education, healthcare or the right to vote among new rights not previously recognized in the constitution.11“Constitution reform: Sweeping changes in constitution”, Daily Star, 16 January 2025, https://www.thedailystar.net/news/bangladesh/politics/news/constitution-reform-sweeping-changes-constitution-3800181
Education and children’s rights
Article 41(2) of the 1972 Constitution states:
“No person attending any educational institution shall be required to receive religious instruction, or to take part in or to attend any religious ceremony or worship, if that instruction, ceremony or worship relates to a religion other than his own.”
Providers of education may broadly be grouped as follows: (a) public and private schools and madrasas that follow the national curriculum including both secular and religious subjects; (b) unregistered and autonomous Quomi madrasas that follow Deobandi curricula – these schools are generally independently managed and locally funded while offering Islamic education for free or for a minimal cost; and (c) schools that follow a British curriculum.12Sudipta Roy, Samia Huq, Aisha Binte Abdur Rob, “Faith and education in Bangladesh: A review of the contemporary landscape and challenges,” International Journal of Educational Development, Volume 79, 2020, 102290, ISSN 0738-0593, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijedudev.2020.102290. (https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0738059320304491)
Religious studies are a compulsory part of the curriculum in public and government-accredited schools. Students from the four major religions (Islam, Hinduism, Buddhism, and Christianity) are taught religion as a compulsory subject separately through standardized textbooks from Grades 3−10. Each student adhering to one of the four major religions is to study their respective textbooks only.13Sudipta Roy, Samia Huq, Aisha Binte Abdur Rob, “Faith and education in Bangladesh: A review of the contemporary landscape and challenges,” International Journal of Educational Development, Volume 79, 2020, 102290, ISSN 0738-0593, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijedudev.2020.102290.(https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0738059320304491) However, students belonging to religious minorities are sometimes unable to enroll in religion classes of their faith because of an insufficient number of teachers for students of non-Islamic faiths. In these cases, school officials generally allow local religious institutions, parents, or others to hold religious studies classes for such students outside school hours and sometimes exempt students from the religious education requirement.14“Bangladesh” chapter in 2023 Report on International Religious Freedom (US Department of State, 2024), https://www.state.gov/reports/2023-report-on-international-religious-freedom/bangladesh/
There is no provision for religious education in the national curriculum for children who do not adhere to one of the four major religions. Moreover, the system offers no institutionalized interreligious/interfaith learning opportunities.15 Sudipta Roy, Samia Huq, Aisha Binte Abdur Rob, “Faith and education in Bangladesh: A review of the contemporary landscape and challenges,” International Journal of Educational Development, Volume 79, 2020, 102290, ISSN 0738-0593, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijedudev.2020.102290.(https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0738059320304491)
Private schools are not required to teach religious education. Both Catholic and Islamic religious groups run a significant number of educational institutions.16 Sudipta Roy, Samia Huq, Aisha Binte Abdur Rob, “Faith and education in Bangladesh: A review of the contemporary landscape and challenges,” International Journal of Educational Development,
Volume 79, 2020, 102290, ISSN 0738-0593, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijedudev.2020.102290. (https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0738059320304491); “Bangladesh” chapter in 2023 Report on International Religious Freedom (US Department of State, 2024), https://www.state.gov/reports/2023-report-on-international-religious-freedom/bangladesh/
Bangladeshi madrasas are broadly grouped under two categories: madrasas under the purview of the government’s Madrasa Education Board, the Alia madrasas, and autonomous Quomi madrasas. However, other groups also run largely unregulated madrasas. Madrasas in Bangladesh are almost entirely established and managed by non-state actors. Only three madrasas are reported to be completely State-funded. There is no consensus on the actual number of privately-run madrasas due to their largely unregulated nature and lack of any comprehensive survey.17Sudipta Roy, Samia Huq, Aisha Binte Abdur Rob, “Faith and education in Bangladesh: A review of the contemporary landscape and challenges,” International Journal of Educational Development, Volume 79, 2020, 102290, ISSN 0738-0593, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijedudev.2020.102290. (https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0738059320304491)
The Alia madrasa system, which offers a 16 year-long education, is regulated by the Bangladesh Madrasa Education Board (BMEB) under the Ministry of Education that centrally manages the financial, curricular, assessment, and degree offering responsibilities. As part of the public-private partnership, the government pays salaries for teachers and administrators of selected Alia madrasas.18Sudipta Roy, Samia Huq, Aisha Binte Abdur Rob, “Faith and education in Bangladesh: A review of the contemporary landscape and challenges,” International Journal of Educational Development,
Volume 79, 2020, 102290, ISSN 0738-0593, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijedudev.2020.102290. (https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0738059320304491)
The Quomi system also follows a loosely constructed Dars-i-Nizami curriculum, which is Quran and Hadith based. Several of these madrasas reportedly teach secular subjects such as Bangla and English language and literature, geography, history, and mathematics up to Grade 8. However, how much academic attention is given to these subjects along with questions and assessments around teacher quality is uncertain.19Sudipta Roy, Samia Huq, Aisha Binte Abdur Rob, “Faith and education in Bangladesh: A review of the contemporary landscape and challenges,” International Journal of Educational Development,
Volume 79, 2020, 102290, ISSN 0738-0593, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijedudev.2020.102290. (https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0738059320304491)
In 2017, following the intervention of Islamic religious scholars, a number of poems and other content deemed to be “atheistic” were removed from textbooks. The changes followed years of lobbying and protests coordinated by Hefazat-e Islam – a coalition of Islamist organizations20Sabir Mustafa, “Hefazat-e Islam: Islamist coalition”, BBC, 6 May 2013, https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-22424708 – to demand changes to textbooks, mandatory religious education and punishment for “atheist bloggers”.21Ellen Barry and Julfikar Ali Manik “To Secular Bangladeshis, Textbook Changes Are a Harbinger”, The New York Times, 22 January 2017, https://www.nytimes.com/2017/01/22/world/asia/bangladesh-textbooks-radical-islam.html
Child marriage
The minimum legal age for marriage in Bangladesh is 18 years for girls and 21 for boys.22 “Bangladesh”, Girls Not Brides, https://www.girlsnotbrides.org/learning-resources/child-marriage-atlas/regions-and-countries/bangladesh/ (accessed 13 February 2025)
However, the Child Marriage Restraint Act 201723Child Marriage Restraint Act, 2017, https://www.unicef.org/bangladesh/sites/unicef.org.bangladesh/files/2018-10/Child%20Marriage%20Restraint%20Act%202017%20English.pdf (accessed 13 February 2025) includes a loophole where a court can allow child marriage in “special circumstances as may be prescribed by rules in the best interests of the minor, at the directions of the court and with consent of the parents or the guardian of the minor” (Article 19). The vague wording of the provision has led advocacy groups such as Girls Not Brides to fear that “this loophole will allow girls under 18 in cases of rape and early pregnancy to marry their perpetrators to avoid social stigma and shame.”
A report released by the Bangladesh Sample Vital Statistics in March 2024 indicates that incidence of child marriage is increasing in the country. Almost 42% of young women in Bangladesh were married before they had turned 18, 8% before the age of 15.24Nilima Jahan, “An alarming upswing in child marriage”, Daily Star, 28 March 2024, https://www.thedailystar.net/news/bangladesh/news/alarming-upswing-child-marriage-3576476 Child marriage is reported to be more prevalent in rural areas, and correlated to school drop out rates. Drivers of child marriage are reported to include poverty, traditional gender norms and honor, and climate emergencies.25“Bangladesh: IRC study reveals a staggering 39% surge in child marriage due to climate change”, International Rescue Committee, 6 December 2023, https://www.rescue.org/uk/press-release/bangladesh-irc-study-reveals-staggering-39-surge-child-marriage-due-climate-change; “Bangladesh”, Girls Not Brides, https://www.girlsnotbrides.org/learning-resources/child-marriage-atlas/regions-and-countries/bangladesh/ (accessed 13 February 2025); Naznin Akhter, “Child marriage continues on various pretexts”, Prothom Alo, 21 May 2024, https://en.prothomalo.com/bangladesh/prvy0b3sjp Media reports indicate that few child marriages are officially registered.26Naznin Akhter, “Child marriage continues on various pretexts”, Prothom Alo, 21 May 2024, https://en.prothomalo.com/bangladesh/prvy0b3sjp
Family, community and society
Religious influence in family law
Family law concerning marriage, divorce and adoption has separate provisions for Muslims, Hindus, and Christians. As a result, laws concerning marriage, divorce, and adoption differ significantly depending on the religious beliefs and genders of the persons involved. Typically, women fare worse in terms of the extent rights and benefits afforded to them compared to men in family law. Muslim and Hindu family laws are codified in the legal system. The laws are enforced in secular courts.27 “Bangladesh” chapter in 2023 Report on International Religious Freedom (US Department of State, 2024), https://www.state.gov/reports/2023-report-on-international-religious-freedom/bangladesh/
The family laws of the religions of the two parties concerned govern their marriage rituals and proceedings. Interreligious marriage is subject to considerable social stigma, and is possible to varying degrees based on the gender and religious background of the persons involved. For example, under the Muslim family ordinance, a Muslim man may marry women of any Abrahamic faith; however, a Muslim woman may not marry a non-Muslim.28Muslim Family Laws Ordinance, (Ordinance No. VIII of 1961), http://bdlaws.minlaw.gov.bd/act-details-305.html
The long out-dated and ambiguous 1872 Special Marriage Act29The Special Marriage Act, (Act No. III of 1872), 8 July 1872, http://bdlaws.minlaw.gov.bd/act-details-25.html allows Hindus, Buddhists, Sikhs, Jains, and the non-religious to marry outside of their religion.get married. Couples married under this act are not allowed to adopt; succession, maintenance, custody and guardianship of children and inheritance is not clearly defined either, creating an unclear legal situation.
Alternative dispute resolution is available to all citizens for settling out of court family arguments and other civil matters not related to land ownership. With the consent of both parties, lawyers, court officials, or community leaders may be identified to facilitate the arbitration, the results of which may be used in court.30“Bangladesh” chapter in 2023 Report on International Religious Freedom (US Department of State, 2024), https://www.state.gov/reports/2023-report-on-international-religious-freedom/bangladesh/
Islamic Sharia law plays some role in civil matters pertaining to the Muslim community.31The Muslim Personal Law (Shariat) Application Act, (Act No. XXVI of 1937), http://bdlaws.minlaw.gov.bd/act-173.html There is no formal implementation of Sharia, and it is theoretically not imposed on non-Muslims, however there this is a very high likelihood that some non-religious individuals would be presumed religious and socially pressured to conform to religious arbitration in family matters.32 “Bangladesh” chapter in 2023 Report on International Religious Freedom (US Department of State, 2024), https://www.state.gov/reports/2023-report-on-international-religious-freedom/bangladesh/
Women’s rights
Social and cultural norms, alongside prevailing patriarchal attitudes, impose discriminatory and stereotypical roles, rights and responsibilities according to gender.33“Country policy and information note: women fearing gender-based violence, Bangladesh, January 2024 (accessible)”, UK Government, last updated 20 December 2024, https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/bangladesh-country-policy-and-information-notes/country-policy-and-information-note-women-fearing-gender-based-violence-bangladesh-january-2024-accessible
As indicated above, religious personal laws governing women’s rights in relation to marriage, divorce, maintenance and property inheritance are largely discriminatory against women.
According to Human Rights Watch, sexual and gender-based violence are widespread and women and girls in Bangladesh have little recourse to seek protection or access justice for these crimes.34“Bangladesh” chapter in World Report 2025 (Human Rights Watch, 2025), https://www.hrw.org/world-report/2025/country-chapters/bangladesh
LGBTI+ rights
Same-sex conduct is criminalized under Section 377 of the Penal Code (Act XLV of 1860)35The Penal Code, 1860 (ACT NO. XLV OF 1860), 6 October 1860, https://database.ilga.org/api/downloader/download/1/BD%20-%20LEG%20-%20Penal%20Code%20(1860)%20-%20TR(en).pdf with penalties from ten years to life in prison. There are no legal protections against discrimination on the basis of sexuality, and LGBTI+ organizations face obstacles to operating in the country.36 “Bangladesh”, ILGA World Database, accessed 13 February 2025, https://database.ilga.org/bangladesh-lgbti LGBTI+ people and advocates have reported increased threats of violence.37 “Bangladesh” chapter in World Report 2025 (Human Rights Watch, 2025), https://www.hrw.org/world-report/2025/country-chapters/bangladesh; Shahanur Islam, “LGBT teachers suffer as new Bangladesh regime focuses on regaining stability”, Erasing 76 Crimes, 2 December 2024, https://76crimes.com/2024/12/02/lgbt-teachers-suffer-as-new-bangladesh-regime-focuses-on-regaining-stability/
Due to social taboos and societal pressure to conform to heterosexual, cultural and religious norms, including marriage and having children, the majority of LGBTI+ people in Bangladesh are reported to choose to keep their sexual orientation a private matter to avoid discrimination, social exclusion and hostility from their families and wider society.38“Country policy and information note: sexual orientation and gender identity, Bangladesh, September 2023 (accessible)”, UK Government, last updated 20 December 2024, https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/bangladesh-country-policy-and-information-notes/country-policy-and-information-note-sexual-orientation-and-gender-identity-bangladesh-september-2023-accessible Further, according to a report by the International Republican Institute, “The intersection of religiosity and family honor forced many participants [in their focus groups] into a tenuous agreement with their families to hide their sexual or gender orientation in public.”39Understanding the lives of Bangladesh’s LGBTI community (International Republican Institute, April 2021), https://www.iri.org/wp-content/uploads/legacy/iri.org/bangladesh-lgbti_final.pdf (accessed 13 February 2025)
Conversion practices – reportedly performed by individuals, family members, medical professionals, and religious and community leaders – are widespread.40“Country policy and information note: sexual orientation and gender identity, Bangladesh, September 2023 (accessible)”, UK Government, last updated 20 December 2024, https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/bangladesh-country-policy-and-information-notes/country-policy-and-information-note-sexual-orientation-and-gender-identity-bangladesh-september-2023-accessible; Stop “Conversion Therapy” in Bangladesh, All Out, accessed 13 February 2025, https://action.allout.org/en/m/ce37ab77/
Religious tension
Communal violence has been a significant problem in Bangladesh.
Since the ouster of Sheikh Hasina’s government there have been reports of groups promoting extremist Islam attacking minorities, particularly those from Hindu and Ahmadiyya communities. Additionally, there have been reports of ethnic minorities in the Chittagong Hill Tracts continuing to endure discrimination and violence perpetrated by the authorities.41“Bangladesh” chapter in World Report 2025 (Human Rights Watch, 2025), https://www.hrw.org/world-report/2025/country-chapters/bangladesh
Freedom of expression, advocacy of humanist values
The Constitution guarantees freedom of expression, with some restrictions for “public order” concerns, and its media are vibrant and diverse. Bangladeshi authorities impose serious restrictions on freedom of expression in order to suppress criticism. Several legislative restrictions unduly restrict the right to freedom of expression, including provisions within the Penal Code that make criminal defamation,42“Use and misuse of defamation law and its impact on journalism”, Daily Star, 26 November 2019,
https://www.thedailystar.net/round-tables/news/use-and-misuse-defamation-law-and-its-impact-journalism-1832056; sedition43Mahfuz Anam, “Sedition Law and Press Freedom in Bangladesh”, Daily Star, 23 June 2023, https://www.thedailystar.net/law-our-rights/news/sedition-law-and-press-freedom-bangladesh-3353681; Yudhajit Shankar Das, “Sedition case against 18 Hindus in Bangladesh over saffron flags show communal rot”, India Today , 7 November 2024, https://www.indiatoday.in/world/story/hindus-bangladesh-face-sedition-case-saffron-flag-communal-rot-protests-chattogram-pm-modi-trump-targetting-minorities-2626398-2024-11-01; “Bangladesh court rejects sedition case over Al Jazeera report”, Al-Jazeera, 23 February 2021, https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2021/2/23/bangladesh-court-rejects-sedition-case-for-al-jazeera-probe; and religious insult offences. To date, these provisions have been used to imprison activists, writers, bloggers and journalists critical of the authorities. This in turn has led to self-censorship on some religious and political topics.
In September 2023, amid growing domestic and international condemnation, the government replaced the previously abusive Digital Security Act (DSA) with the Cyber Security Act, 2023 (CSA).44Bangladesh: The Cyber Security Act, 2023, September 2023, https://www.refworld.org/legal/legislation/natlegbod/2023/en/148277 [accessed 18 February 2025]; “Parliament passes Cyber Security Bill 2023”, Dhaka Tribune, 13 September 2023, https://www.dhakatribune.com/bangladesh/325228/parliament-passes-cyber-security-bill-2023 Although framed as a more moderate alternative, the CSA retained several controversial provisions, including provisions criminalizing “hurting religious sentiments” and deteriorating public order by “disrupting communal harmony”. The CSA grants arbitrary powers to law enforcement for arrest, search, and seizure, and empowering authorities to block or filter content with minimal oversight.45“Bangladesh: ARTICLE 19 urges consultation on Draft Cyber Protection Ordinance”, ARTICLE 19, 3 February 2025, https://www.article19.org/resources/bangladesh-draft-cyber-protection-ordinance/; “Bangladesh: Interim Government must restore freedom of expression in Bangladesh and repeal Cyber Security Act”, Amnesty International, 8 August 2024, https://www.amnesty.org/en/latest/news/2024/08/bangladesh-interim-government-must-restore-freedom-of-expression-in-bangladesh-and-repeal-cyber-security-act/
On 4 November 2023, the law was used to arrest 19-year-old atheist blogger Selim Khan after a fellow member of a private Facebook group for atheists photographed a comment made by Khan and shared it publicly, “causing public agitation.”46“Bangladesh: Blogger Arbitrarily Detained Despite Bail”, Amnesty UK, https://www.amnesty.org.uk/urgent-actions/blogger-arbitrarily-detained-despite-bail (accessed 18 February 2025)Khan was subsequently released on bail, but remained in jail as of June 2024 due to procedural delays.47“Bangladesh: Blogger arbitrarily detained despite bail: Selim Khan”, Amnesty International, 10 June 2024, Index Number: ASA 13/8137/2024, https://www.amnesty.org/en/documents/asa13/8137/2024/en/
On 7 November 2024, the interim government agreed in principle to repeal the CSA.48CSA getting scrapped”, Daily Star, 8 November 2024, https://www.thedailystar.net/news/bangladesh/news/csa-getting-scrapped-3747111 On 24 December 2024, the advisory council approved the draft of the Cyber Surokkha Adhyadesh 2024 (Draft Cyber Protection Ordinance 2025), however, freedom of expression NGO, ARTICLE 19, reports that the interim government failed to conduct meaningful consultations with stakeholders.49“Bangladesh: ARTICLE 19 urges consultation on Draft Cyber Protection Ordinance”, ARTICLE 19, 3 February 2025, https://www.article19.org/resources/bangladesh-draft-cyber-protection-ordinance/ The proposed draft has been widely criticized for failing to protect freedom of expression. The draft retains a provision designed to criminalize the publication of information, in any form, that intends to spread “hate” in such vague terms that may criminalize legitimate expression such as the criticism of religious dogma.
According to Human Rights Watch, “As of November [2024], authorities had filed murder charges against at least 140 journalists in relation to their reporting on the Monsoon Revolution and scrapped more than 150 press accreditations required to attend official events. When questioned about the criminal cases targeting journalists, Yunus said that the charges had been filed “following the old laws and practices,” underscoring the point that without systemic reform, the target of police will change but the abusive practices will remain the same.50Julia Bleckner, After the Monsoon Revolution (Human Rights Watch, January 2025), https://www.hrw.org/report/2025/01/27/after-monsoon-revolution/roadmap-lasting-security-sector-reform-bangladesh
Freethought under threat
The failure of the authorities to bring the perpetrators of murders of freethinkers (see ‘Highlighted cases’ below) to justice and the lack of security provided to any bloggers under threat lead to a stifling climate for free expression. In addition, police and government officials threatened to arrest bloggers for writing about “atheism” or simply advised them that they should stop writing about atheism if they wished to be safe.51Arafatul Islam, “Atheist bloggers flee Bangladesh”, Deutsche Welle, 9 November 2015, dw.com/en/atheist-bloggers-flee-bangladesh/a-18708933
De facto “blasphemy” laws
Chapter XV of the Penal Code52The Penal Code, (Act No. XLV of 1860), 6 October 1860, http://bdlaws.minlaw.gov.bd/act-11.html provides for several criminal offenses related to religion, including defiling places of worship, interrupting services and trespassing on burial grounds. Several provisions in this chapter have been used to prosecute and imprison atheist and secularist activists.
Section 295A states:
“Whoever, with deliberate and malicious intention of outraging the religious feelings of any class of the citizens of Bangladesh, by words, either spoken or written, or by visible representations insults or attempts to insult the religion or the religious beliefs of that class, shall be punished with imprisonment of either description for a term which may extend to two years, or with fine, or with both.”
Section 298 states:
“Whoever, with the deliberate intention of wounding the religious feelings of any person, utters any word or makes any sound in the hearing of that person or makes any gesture in the sight of that person or places any object in the sight of that person, shall be punished with imprisonment of either description for a term which may extend to one year, or with fine, or with both.”
While articles of the CSA would represent de facto restrictions on “blasphemy”, the interim government has announced that no arrests will take place under the law while it is under review.
Enforced disappearances
The use of enforced disappearances as a means of stifling criticism became characteristic of the Sheikh Hasina era. It is estimated that more than 700 people were forcibly disappeared between 2009 and 2024.53“Bangladesh: Signing of Convention on Enforced Disappearances is a much welcome first step”, Amnesty International, 30 August 2024, https://www.amnesty.org/en/latest/news/2024/08/bangladesh-signing-of-convention-on-enforced-disappearances-is-a-much-welcome-first-step/; “Bangladesh: Government Sets up Disappearances Inquiry”, Human Rights Watch, 29 August 2024, https://www.hrw.org/news/2024/08/29/bangladesh-government-sets-disappearances-inquiry
In August, the interim government established a commission of inquiry into all enforced disappearances and acceded to the UN Convention on Enforced Disappearances.54“Bangladesh” chapter in World Report 2025 (Human Rights Watch, 2025), https://www.hrw.org/world-report/2025/country-chapters/bangladesh; “Bangladesh: Government Sets up Disappearances Inquiry”, Human Rights Watch, 29 August 2024, https://www.hrw.org/news/2024/08/29/bangladesh-government-sets-disappearances-inquiry
Freedom of assembly
In July 2024, violence erupted after Hasina’s Awami League party supporters and police attacked students peacefully protesting a politicized quota scheme for government jobs. Security forces used excessive force, including tear gas, stun grenades, and rubber and live bullets, to disperse protesters. But protests continued, and on August 5, Hasina stepped down and fled the country. The UN’s Fact-finding Mission to Bangladesh following the protests found that the government was complicit in gross human rights violations in relation to the repression of the protests.55“Bangladesh” chapter in World Report 2025 (Human Rights Watch, 2025), https://www.hrw.org/world-report/2025/country-chapters/bangladesh; “OHCHR Fact-Finding Report: Human Rights Violations and Abuses related to the Protests of July and August 2024 in Bangladesh”, UN Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights, 12 February 2025, https://www.ohchr.org/en/documents/country-reports/ohchr-fact-finding-report-human-rights-violations-and-abuses-related
Highlighted cases
In July 2020, police indicated that they were seeking to arrest human rights activist and secular blogger Asaduzzaman Noor, also known as Asad Noor, after new criminal charges were brought against him under the Digital Security Act on July 14 for ‘spreading rumours’ and ‘defaming Islam’ via a Facebook video.56”Bangladesh should drop spurious charges against blogger Asad Noor”, Humanists International, 4 August 2020 https://humanists.international/2020/08/bangladesh-should-drop-spurious-charges-against-blogger-asad-noor/; “Death threats against Bangladeshi blogger accused of “defaming Islam”, Reporters Without Borders, 28 July 2020″ https://rsf.org/en/news/death-threats-against-bangladeshi-blogger-accused-defaming-islam Noor had previously been targeted under the DSA’s predecessor, the 2013 Information and Communication Technology (ICT) Act. In January 2017, the then 25-year old was arrested at Dhaka airport and charged with defamation of religion for content he had posted on social media.57”Detained Bangladeshi Blogger Asad Noor Should be Released and Given Protection”, PEN America, 11 January 2011 https://pen.org/press-release/bangladesh-detained-blogger-asad-noor-released-given-protection/ Though released briefly on bail in August 2018, he was subsequently re-arrested after a radical Islamic organization known as Hefazat-e-Islam Bangladesh called for him to be imprisoned and subjected to the death penalty. He was only released from prison again in January 2019. These charges against him remain outstanding. He lives in hiding following threats to his life.
Between 2013-2018 several humanist or freethinking authors, bloggers and secular publishers were attacked, many of them killed. In February, 2013, the atheist blogger Ahmed Rajib Haider (pen name: Thaba Baba), was murdered in a machete attack at his home. Avijit Roy, an author of books on humanism and science, was killed in February 2015 outside the International Book Fair at Dhaka University, his wife Rafida Ahmed was also seriously hurt in the same attack; Washiqur Rahman Babu, a young blogger known as a “progressive freethinker”, was killed in March 2015; Ananta Bijoy Das, who blogged against fundamentalism, in favour of science, justice, and free expression, was struck down in May 2015; Niladri Chatterjee (penname: Niloy Neel), a humanist known as much for his blogging on minority and women’s rights as much as for his atheistic views, was killed in his own home in front of his partner in August 2015; and on 31 October 2015, coordinated gun and machete attacks on two publishing houses in Dhaka – both publishers of books by Avijit Roy and other secular authors – took the life of Faysal Arefin Dipon (Jagriti publishers), and seriously injured Ahmed Rashid Tutul (Shuddho-Shor publishers), author and blogger Randipam Basu and poet Tareq Rahim; Xulhaz Mannan, founder of the nation’s first LGBTQ+ magazine was killed at his home in April 2016; that same month, writer Rezaul Karim Siddique, an English professor, and Nazimuddin Samad, an atheist blogger, were killed in separate attacks; in 2018, after a year-long break in killings, publisher, blogger and secular political activist, Shahzahan Bachchu was killed.
The feminist author and atheist activist Taslima Nasrin remains in exile from Bangladesh because of the threat of death or government persecution should she return to her homeland.
Testimonies
“Bangladesh is a country where even if you kill or rape, no one will hate you as much as if they find out you are an atheist. You might already know about the killing of bloggers and atheists in Bangladesh? Since 2013, more than 20 atheists have been hacked to death by Islamic groups. I have received thousands of death threats as a human rights filmmaker and writer.”
Sahadat, 14 June 2023
“[The new law banning “defamation of religion”] has now has become almost a fear instigating tool inside Bangladesh against any Atheist or non-believer. This is the tool Pakistan used to rapidly turn into a fundamentalist, broken nation. That we see today, Bangladesh is not far.”
— Anonymous
“If you are a true activist, you are the most vulnerable person in the country. You could be arrested by the government or be targeted by an Islamist.”
— Bangladeshi secular activist
References
| ↑1 | Salil Tripathi, “The question for Bangladesh: can it break the spell of its bloodstained history?”, The Guardian, 7 August 2024, https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/article/2024/aug/07/the-question-for-bangladesh-can-it-break-the-spell-of-its-bloodstained-history; Salil Tripathi, “Bangladeshi and British politics collided to bring down Tulip Siddiq”, The Guardian, 16 January 2025, https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2025/jan/16/tulip-siddiq-resignation-corruption-allegations-bangladesh |
|---|---|
| ↑2 | “Bangladesh” chapter in World Report 2025 (Human Rights Watch, 2025), https://www.hrw.org/world-report/2025/country-chapters/bangladesh[/ref]
According to the 2022 Census, 91% of the population are Muslim, 8% Hindu, the remaining 1% comprise Buddhists, Christians and other minority religious groups. The census does not record the number of non-religious people living in the country.[ref]Bangladesh Bureau of Statistics (BBS), “Bangladesh : Population and Housing Census Dataset”, Humanitarian Data Exchange, accessed 10 February 2025, https://data.humdata.org/dataset/populationa-and-housing-census-dataset |
| ↑3 | Ali Riaz, “What Bangladesh’s widely boycotted election reveals about its future”, New Atlanticist, 18 January 2024, https://www.atlanticcouncil.org/blogs/new-atlanticist/what-bangladeshs-widely-boycotted-election-reveals-about-its-future/; Shola Lawal, “Bans and boycotts: The troubled history of Bangladesh’s elections”, AlJazeera, 5 January 2024, https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2024/1/5/bangladesh-elections-a-timeline-of-controversy; KRUTIKA PATHI, “Bangladesh’s democracy is strained as Hasina wins a 4th term in a boycotted, low turnout vote”, Associated Press, 9 January 2024, https://apnews.com/article/sheikh-hasina-awami-league-boycott-opposition-bangladesh-election-1506563c63b06166f800e8e89332b4e3 |
| ↑4, ↑5, ↑50 | Julia Bleckner, After the Monsoon Revolution (Human Rights Watch, January 2025), https://www.hrw.org/report/2025/01/27/after-monsoon-revolution/roadmap-lasting-security-sector-reform-bangladesh |
| ↑6 | “Constitution reform: Sweeping changes in constitution”, Daily Star, 16 January 2025, https://www.thedailystar.net/news/bangladesh/politics/news/constitution-reform-sweeping-changes-constitution-3800181 |
| ↑7 | Constitution of the Republic of Bangladesh, 1972, http://bdlaws.minlaw.gov.bd/act-367.html |
| ↑8 | Sudha Ramachandran, “Ali Riaz on Recommendations of Bangladesh’s Constitutional Reform Commission”, The Diplomat, 3 February 2025, https://thediplomat.com/2025/02/ali-riaz-on-recommendations-of-bangladeshs-constitutional-reform-commission/ |
| ↑9 | Sudha Ramachandran, “Ali Riaz on Recommendations of Bangladesh’s Constitutional Reform Commission”, The Diplomat, 3 February 2025, https://thediplomat.com/2025/02/ali-riaz-on-recommendations-of-bangladeshs-constitutional-reform-commission/ |
| ↑10 | Sudha Ramachandran, “Ali Riaz on Recommendations of Bangladesh’s Constitutional Reform Commission”, The Diplomat, 3 February 2025, https://thediplomat.com/2025/02/ali-riaz-on-recommendations-of-bangladeshs-constitutional-reform-commission/ |
| ↑11 | “Constitution reform: Sweeping changes in constitution”, Daily Star, 16 January 2025, https://www.thedailystar.net/news/bangladesh/politics/news/constitution-reform-sweeping-changes-constitution-3800181 |
| ↑12 | Sudipta Roy, Samia Huq, Aisha Binte Abdur Rob, “Faith and education in Bangladesh: A review of the contemporary landscape and challenges,” International Journal of Educational Development, Volume 79, 2020, 102290, ISSN 0738-0593, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijedudev.2020.102290. (https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0738059320304491) |
| ↑13 | Sudipta Roy, Samia Huq, Aisha Binte Abdur Rob, “Faith and education in Bangladesh: A review of the contemporary landscape and challenges,” International Journal of Educational Development, Volume 79, 2020, 102290, ISSN 0738-0593, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijedudev.2020.102290.(https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0738059320304491) |
| ↑14 | “Bangladesh” chapter in 2023 Report on International Religious Freedom (US Department of State, 2024), https://www.state.gov/reports/2023-report-on-international-religious-freedom/bangladesh/ |
| ↑15 | Sudipta Roy, Samia Huq, Aisha Binte Abdur Rob, “Faith and education in Bangladesh: A review of the contemporary landscape and challenges,” International Journal of Educational Development, Volume 79, 2020, 102290, ISSN 0738-0593, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijedudev.2020.102290.(https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0738059320304491) |
| ↑16 | Sudipta Roy, Samia Huq, Aisha Binte Abdur Rob, “Faith and education in Bangladesh: A review of the contemporary landscape and challenges,” International Journal of Educational Development, Volume 79, 2020, 102290, ISSN 0738-0593, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijedudev.2020.102290. (https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0738059320304491); “Bangladesh” chapter in 2023 Report on International Religious Freedom (US Department of State, 2024), https://www.state.gov/reports/2023-report-on-international-religious-freedom/bangladesh/ |
| ↑17 | Sudipta Roy, Samia Huq, Aisha Binte Abdur Rob, “Faith and education in Bangladesh: A review of the contemporary landscape and challenges,” International Journal of Educational Development, Volume 79, 2020, 102290, ISSN 0738-0593, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijedudev.2020.102290. (https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0738059320304491) |
| ↑18, ↑19 | Sudipta Roy, Samia Huq, Aisha Binte Abdur Rob, “Faith and education in Bangladesh: A review of the contemporary landscape and challenges,” International Journal of Educational Development, Volume 79, 2020, 102290, ISSN 0738-0593, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijedudev.2020.102290. (https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0738059320304491) |
| ↑20 | Sabir Mustafa, “Hefazat-e Islam: Islamist coalition”, BBC, 6 May 2013, https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-22424708 |
| ↑21 | Ellen Barry and Julfikar Ali Manik “To Secular Bangladeshis, Textbook Changes Are a Harbinger”, The New York Times, 22 January 2017, https://www.nytimes.com/2017/01/22/world/asia/bangladesh-textbooks-radical-islam.html |
| ↑22 | “Bangladesh”, Girls Not Brides, https://www.girlsnotbrides.org/learning-resources/child-marriage-atlas/regions-and-countries/bangladesh/ (accessed 13 February 2025) |
| ↑23 | Child Marriage Restraint Act, 2017, https://www.unicef.org/bangladesh/sites/unicef.org.bangladesh/files/2018-10/Child%20Marriage%20Restraint%20Act%202017%20English.pdf (accessed 13 February 2025) |
| ↑24 | Nilima Jahan, “An alarming upswing in child marriage”, Daily Star, 28 March 2024, https://www.thedailystar.net/news/bangladesh/news/alarming-upswing-child-marriage-3576476 |
| ↑25 | “Bangladesh: IRC study reveals a staggering 39% surge in child marriage due to climate change”, International Rescue Committee, 6 December 2023, https://www.rescue.org/uk/press-release/bangladesh-irc-study-reveals-staggering-39-surge-child-marriage-due-climate-change; “Bangladesh”, Girls Not Brides, https://www.girlsnotbrides.org/learning-resources/child-marriage-atlas/regions-and-countries/bangladesh/ (accessed 13 February 2025); Naznin Akhter, “Child marriage continues on various pretexts”, Prothom Alo, 21 May 2024, https://en.prothomalo.com/bangladesh/prvy0b3sjp |
| ↑26 | Naznin Akhter, “Child marriage continues on various pretexts”, Prothom Alo, 21 May 2024, https://en.prothomalo.com/bangladesh/prvy0b3sjp |
| ↑27 | “Bangladesh” chapter in 2023 Report on International Religious Freedom (US Department of State, 2024), https://www.state.gov/reports/2023-report-on-international-religious-freedom/bangladesh/ |
| ↑28 | Muslim Family Laws Ordinance, (Ordinance No. VIII of 1961), http://bdlaws.minlaw.gov.bd/act-details-305.html |
| ↑29 | The Special Marriage Act, (Act No. III of 1872), 8 July 1872, http://bdlaws.minlaw.gov.bd/act-details-25.html |
| ↑30 | “Bangladesh” chapter in 2023 Report on International Religious Freedom (US Department of State, 2024), https://www.state.gov/reports/2023-report-on-international-religious-freedom/bangladesh/ |
| ↑31 | The Muslim Personal Law (Shariat) Application Act, (Act No. XXVI of 1937), http://bdlaws.minlaw.gov.bd/act-173.html |
| ↑32 | “Bangladesh” chapter in 2023 Report on International Religious Freedom (US Department of State, 2024), https://www.state.gov/reports/2023-report-on-international-religious-freedom/bangladesh/ |
| ↑33 | “Country policy and information note: women fearing gender-based violence, Bangladesh, January 2024 (accessible)”, UK Government, last updated 20 December 2024, https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/bangladesh-country-policy-and-information-notes/country-policy-and-information-note-women-fearing-gender-based-violence-bangladesh-january-2024-accessible |
| ↑34 | “Bangladesh” chapter in World Report 2025 (Human Rights Watch, 2025), https://www.hrw.org/world-report/2025/country-chapters/bangladesh |
| ↑35 | The Penal Code, 1860 (ACT NO. XLV OF 1860), 6 October 1860, https://database.ilga.org/api/downloader/download/1/BD%20-%20LEG%20-%20Penal%20Code%20(1860)%20-%20TR(en).pdf |
| ↑36 | “Bangladesh”, ILGA World Database, accessed 13 February 2025, https://database.ilga.org/bangladesh-lgbti |
| ↑37 | “Bangladesh” chapter in World Report 2025 (Human Rights Watch, 2025), https://www.hrw.org/world-report/2025/country-chapters/bangladesh; Shahanur Islam, “LGBT teachers suffer as new Bangladesh regime focuses on regaining stability”, Erasing 76 Crimes, 2 December 2024, https://76crimes.com/2024/12/02/lgbt-teachers-suffer-as-new-bangladesh-regime-focuses-on-regaining-stability/ |
| ↑38 | “Country policy and information note: sexual orientation and gender identity, Bangladesh, September 2023 (accessible)”, UK Government, last updated 20 December 2024, https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/bangladesh-country-policy-and-information-notes/country-policy-and-information-note-sexual-orientation-and-gender-identity-bangladesh-september-2023-accessible |
| ↑39 | Understanding the lives of Bangladesh’s LGBTI community (International Republican Institute, April 2021), https://www.iri.org/wp-content/uploads/legacy/iri.org/bangladesh-lgbti_final.pdf (accessed 13 February 2025) |
| ↑40 | “Country policy and information note: sexual orientation and gender identity, Bangladesh, September 2023 (accessible)”, UK Government, last updated 20 December 2024, https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/bangladesh-country-policy-and-information-notes/country-policy-and-information-note-sexual-orientation-and-gender-identity-bangladesh-september-2023-accessible; Stop “Conversion Therapy” in Bangladesh, All Out, accessed 13 February 2025, https://action.allout.org/en/m/ce37ab77/ |
| ↑41 | “Bangladesh” chapter in World Report 2025 (Human Rights Watch, 2025), https://www.hrw.org/world-report/2025/country-chapters/bangladesh |
| ↑42 | “Use and misuse of defamation law and its impact on journalism”, Daily Star, 26 November 2019, https://www.thedailystar.net/round-tables/news/use-and-misuse-defamation-law-and-its-impact-journalism-1832056; |
| ↑43 | Mahfuz Anam, “Sedition Law and Press Freedom in Bangladesh”, Daily Star, 23 June 2023, https://www.thedailystar.net/law-our-rights/news/sedition-law-and-press-freedom-bangladesh-3353681; Yudhajit Shankar Das, “Sedition case against 18 Hindus in Bangladesh over saffron flags show communal rot”, India Today , 7 November 2024, https://www.indiatoday.in/world/story/hindus-bangladesh-face-sedition-case-saffron-flag-communal-rot-protests-chattogram-pm-modi-trump-targetting-minorities-2626398-2024-11-01; “Bangladesh court rejects sedition case over Al Jazeera report”, Al-Jazeera, 23 February 2021, https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2021/2/23/bangladesh-court-rejects-sedition-case-for-al-jazeera-probe; |
| ↑44 | Bangladesh: The Cyber Security Act, 2023, September 2023, https://www.refworld.org/legal/legislation/natlegbod/2023/en/148277 [accessed 18 February 2025]; “Parliament passes Cyber Security Bill 2023”, Dhaka Tribune, 13 September 2023, https://www.dhakatribune.com/bangladesh/325228/parliament-passes-cyber-security-bill-2023 |
| ↑45 | “Bangladesh: ARTICLE 19 urges consultation on Draft Cyber Protection Ordinance”, ARTICLE 19, 3 February 2025, https://www.article19.org/resources/bangladesh-draft-cyber-protection-ordinance/; “Bangladesh: Interim Government must restore freedom of expression in Bangladesh and repeal Cyber Security Act”, Amnesty International, 8 August 2024, https://www.amnesty.org/en/latest/news/2024/08/bangladesh-interim-government-must-restore-freedom-of-expression-in-bangladesh-and-repeal-cyber-security-act/ |
| ↑46 | “Bangladesh: Blogger Arbitrarily Detained Despite Bail”, Amnesty UK, https://www.amnesty.org.uk/urgent-actions/blogger-arbitrarily-detained-despite-bail (accessed 18 February 2025) |
| ↑47 | “Bangladesh: Blogger arbitrarily detained despite bail: Selim Khan”, Amnesty International, 10 June 2024, Index Number: ASA 13/8137/2024, https://www.amnesty.org/en/documents/asa13/8137/2024/en/ |
| ↑48 | CSA getting scrapped”, Daily Star, 8 November 2024, https://www.thedailystar.net/news/bangladesh/news/csa-getting-scrapped-3747111 |
| ↑49 | “Bangladesh: ARTICLE 19 urges consultation on Draft Cyber Protection Ordinance”, ARTICLE 19, 3 February 2025, https://www.article19.org/resources/bangladesh-draft-cyber-protection-ordinance/ |
| ↑51 | Arafatul Islam, “Atheist bloggers flee Bangladesh”, Deutsche Welle, 9 November 2015, dw.com/en/atheist-bloggers-flee-bangladesh/a-18708933 |
| ↑52 | The Penal Code, (Act No. XLV of 1860), 6 October 1860, http://bdlaws.minlaw.gov.bd/act-11.html |
| ↑53 | “Bangladesh: Signing of Convention on Enforced Disappearances is a much welcome first step”, Amnesty International, 30 August 2024, https://www.amnesty.org/en/latest/news/2024/08/bangladesh-signing-of-convention-on-enforced-disappearances-is-a-much-welcome-first-step/; “Bangladesh: Government Sets up Disappearances Inquiry”, Human Rights Watch, 29 August 2024, https://www.hrw.org/news/2024/08/29/bangladesh-government-sets-disappearances-inquiry |
| ↑54 | “Bangladesh” chapter in World Report 2025 (Human Rights Watch, 2025), https://www.hrw.org/world-report/2025/country-chapters/bangladesh; “Bangladesh: Government Sets up Disappearances Inquiry”, Human Rights Watch, 29 August 2024, https://www.hrw.org/news/2024/08/29/bangladesh-government-sets-disappearances-inquiry |
| ↑55 | “Bangladesh” chapter in World Report 2025 (Human Rights Watch, 2025), https://www.hrw.org/world-report/2025/country-chapters/bangladesh; “OHCHR Fact-Finding Report: Human Rights Violations and Abuses related to the Protests of July and August 2024 in Bangladesh”, UN Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights, 12 February 2025, https://www.ohchr.org/en/documents/country-reports/ohchr-fact-finding-report-human-rights-violations-and-abuses-related |
| ↑56 | ”Bangladesh should drop spurious charges against blogger Asad Noor”, Humanists International, 4 August 2020 https://humanists.international/2020/08/bangladesh-should-drop-spurious-charges-against-blogger-asad-noor/; “Death threats against Bangladeshi blogger accused of “defaming Islam”, Reporters Without Borders, 28 July 2020″ https://rsf.org/en/news/death-threats-against-bangladeshi-blogger-accused-defaming-islam |
| ↑57 | ”Detained Bangladeshi Blogger Asad Noor Should be Released and Given Protection”, PEN America, 11 January 2011 https://pen.org/press-release/bangladesh-detained-blogger-asad-noor-released-given-protection/ |
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