Lebanon

Lebanon sits on the eastern shore of the Mediterranean and is bordered by Israel to the south and Syria to the north and east. Its location has placed it at the center of Middle Eastern conflicts.¹“Lebanon”, Britannica, accessed September 2025 https://www.britannica.com/place/Lebanon#ref23385;
“Lebanon Country Profile, BBC, accessed September 2025 https://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-14647308

The country has a population of 5.8 million people.²Lebanon Population, Worldometer, accessed September 2025 https://www.worldometers.info/world-population/lebanon-population/ It is host to the largest number of refugees per capita and per square kilometer in the world – including 1.5 million Syrians³“UNHCR Lebanon at a glance”, UNHCR, accessed September 2025 https://www.unhcr.org/lb/about-us/unhcr-lebanon-glance#:~:text=Lebanon%20remains%20a%20country%20hosting,11%2C238%20refugees%20of%20other%20nationalities and at least 500,000 Palestinians.⁴“Where we work”, UNWRA, accessed September 2025 https://www.unrwa.org/where-we-work/lebanon

The country’s history has been marked by sectarian tensions between its numerous and diverse ethnic and religious groups which came to a head in the Lebanese civil war (1975-1990).

Over the last decade, Lebanon has faced a series of crippling crises. In 2015 a garbage crisis resulted in 20,000 tons of decomposing solid waste piled up in the streets of Beirut for eight months. The 2019 economic collapse plunged 80% of the population into poverty as the Lebanese pound lost 98% of its value.⁵Nada Maucourrant Atallah, “Lebanese pound loses 13% of its value in less than a week”, The National News, 25 January 2023 https://www.thenationalnews.com/mena/lebanon/2023/01/25/lebanese-pound-loses-11-of-its-value-in-less-than-a-week/ In 2020, the Beirut port explosion – which is considered the third largest explosion in modern times – caused the death of 220 individuals, displaced 300,000 people, and led to 4.6 billion US dollars in damages.⁶Mohamad Ali Cheaito, and Samar Al-Hajj, “A Brief Report on the Beirut Port Explosion”, Mediterranean Journal of Emergency Medicine & Acute Care, 1(4) 2020 https://escholarship.org/uc/item/6zn9z1j9 In 2023, a conflict between Israel and Hezbollah erupted on Lebanon’s southern border. It sharply escalated in 2024 triggering the internal displacement of almost nearly 900,000 people.⁷“Lebanon”, United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs (OCHA), accessed September 2025 https://www.unocha.org/lebanon

The estimated religious breakdown of the Lebanese population, excluding the refugee population, is 32.2% Shia, 31.2% Sunni, 30.5% Christian, 5.5% Druze, and 0.6% Alawites and Ismailis combined. Jews, Baha’is, Buddhists, and Hindus are also present in small numbers.⁸“Lebanon” chapter, 2023 Report on International Religious Freedom, (US Department of State, 2024) https://www.state.gov/reports/2023-report-on-international-religious-freedom/lebanon/ There are no reliable estimates of the number of atheists or non-religious people.

Lebanon is a member of the League of Arab States (LAS), as well as the Organization of Islamic Cooperation (OIC).

Constitution and government

In 2013, Robert Fisk, the late Middle East correspondent of The Independent, wrote the following to describe Lebanon:

“It may have beautiful mountains, fine food, an extraordinarily well-educated population, but it is sectarian. It’s a bit like owning a Rolls Royce complete with fresh leather seats, a flat screen television and a cocktail bar – but with square wheels. It doesn’t work.”⁹“Robert Fisk: Lebanon is like a Rolls Royce with square wheels… it has a lot that’s worthy of praise but it doesn’t run so well”, The Independent, 24 March 2013 https://www.independent.co.uk/voices/comment/robert-fisk-lebanon-is-like-a-rolls-royce-with-square-wheels-it-has-a-lot-that-s-worthy-of-praise-but-it-doesn-t-run-so-well-8547463.html

Lebanon’s Constitution¹⁰The Lebanese Constitution, Promulgated on May 23, 1926
https://www.un.int/lebanon/sites/www.un.int/files/Lebanon/the_lebanese_constitution_arabic_version.pdf [Arabic]
https://lp.gov.lb/backoffice/uploads/files/Lebanese%20%20Constitution-%20En.pdf [English] – alongside other laws and policies – guarantee the right to freedom of conscience, religion or belief. However, the entire system of government is based on sectarian quotas which, in practice, encourages religious discrimination and is inherently discriminatory against both the non-religious and against individuals of unrecognized religious groups. Sectarian division is codified in the Constitution and discourages individuals from leaving their familial assigned religion. Most non-religious people are expected to conform to a religious identity. Religious affiliation has become a de facto requirement for political participation and is often the only pathway to access basic services.

Lebanon officially recognizes 18 religious groups, including Ismailis, Alawites, Druzes and Jews. The government does not officially recognize religious groups such as Baha’is, Buddhists, Hindus, and unregistered Protestant groups. Members of these groups cannot hold certain government positions, perform legally recognized marriage or divorce proceedings, and have no standing to determine inheritance issues. However, they are permitted to own property, assemble for worship and perform their religious rites freely.

State recognition can give a religious community’s ceremonies legal standing and may bring privileges such as tax-exempt status. It can also allow certain personal-status matters – such as marriage, divorce, child custody, and inheritance – to be handled under that community’s religious rules.¹¹“Lebanon” chapter, 2023 Report on International Religious Freedom, (US Department of State, 2024) https://www.state.gov/reports/2023-report-on-international-religious-freedom/lebanon/

An individual is allowed to change religion if the change is approved by the religious group the person wishes to join. The government permits the publication of religious materials of every religious group in different languages and there are no legal prohibitions to proselytizing.

Lebanese law places the confirmation of top Sunni, Shia, and Druze religious appointments under the Council of Ministers, and the state provides compensation for those positions. Christian church leaders, however, are not state-confirmed and are not paid by the government.¹²“Lebanon” chapter, 2023 Report on International Religious Freedom, (US Department of State, 2024) https://www.state.gov/reports/2023-report-on-international-religious-freedom/lebanon/ All governmental and parliamentary seats are exclusively divided according to this religious and sectarian system, and citizens who do not belong to a religious group are effectively excluded from political representation, or indeed from holding any high public office.

Since its inception in 1920, Lebanon has been mired by sectarian strife and distrust, with the demographic size of each sect determining their share of power.¹³Kamal Salibi, A House of Many Mansions, (I.B Tauris & Co. Ltd. 1988);
Nasri Sayegh, Lebanon in 100 Years, The Victory of Sectarianism’. لبنان في مئة عام، انتصار الطائفية. 2018, Title translated by Mazen Abou Hamdan. Published by Riad El-Rayyes Books. Beirut. Given the political sensitivity of sectarian demographics, there has been only one official census ever conducted by the Lebanese state, which took place in 1932, and which aimed to inform sectarian quotas. An agreement of sectarian quotas was agreed upon in the 1943 National Pact, and this was revised in the 1989 Taef Agreement¹⁴The Taif Agreement 1989 https://www.un.int/lebanon/sites/www.un.int/files/Lebanon/the_taif_agreement_arabic_version_.pdf [Arabic]
https://www.un.int/lebanon/sites/www.un.int/files/Lebanon/the_taif_agreement_english_version_.pdf [English] which ended the 15 year long civil war.

As such, Lebanon follows a sectarian governance model, in which each sectarian group has a pre-defined quota in parliament, government, and public administration. For example, the President must be Christian Maronite, the Prime Minister must be Muslim Sunni, and the Speaker of the Parliament must be Muslim Shia. Half of the governmental and parliamentary seats are designated to Muslim sects and the other half to Christian sects. Additional sectarian quotas are followed to divide those seats among the 18 officially recognized sects, each categorized under the Muslim or Christian banner.

This rigid sectarian model in Lebanon makes it difficult for the Lebanese state to adapt to demographic changes. According to Ali Khalife in A Nation Without Citizens, such sectarian formulas effectively become a cause for new tensions, while simultaneously being unable to resolve those tensions they were created to address.¹⁵Ali Khalife, 2009. وطن بلا مواطنين. (A Nation Without Citizens) Published by Dar Al Farabi. Beirut;
Ihmad Salamey and Rhys Payne, “Parliamentary Consociationalism in Lebanon: Equal Citizenry vs. Quotated Confessionalism”, The Journal of Legislative Studies, Vol.14, No.4 (2008), pp.451–473 https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/13572330802442857 Moreover, this model completely disregards non-religious individuals and denies them the right of political representation or the right to hold any public office.

Sectarianism and Clientelism

Not only are non-religious communities and other religious minorities excluded from politics, but many argue that the sectarian political elites are more motivated in serving their own interests rather than the interests of the communities they claim to represent. The political elites in Lebanon are mostly composed of former warlords from the Lebanese Civil War (1975 – 1990), who accepted peace terms in return for promises of a share of state resources.¹⁶Carmen Geha, From Revolt to Community-Driven Resistance: Beirut’s Year of Hell (Istituto Affari Internazionali, 2021) https://www.cespi.it/sites/default/files/osservatori/allegati/iaip2130.pdf In the aftermath of the Taef Agreement which ended the war, these elites negotiated how to divide the spoils of the state.¹⁷Jad Ghosn “The Untold History” التاريخ الذي لم يرو. Published by Jad Ghosn YouTube Channel, 2022, accessed September 2025 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RjS6b0467Xk&t=14s Not only did these former militia leaders employ their loyalists in the public sector at various points in the last three decades, but they also created distinct rent-seeking mechanisms for them.¹⁸Jad Ghosn “The Untold History” التاريخ الذي لم يرو. Published by Jad Ghosn YouTube Channel, 2022, accessed September 2025 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RjS6b0467Xk&t=14s Thus, some argue that politics in Lebanon became akin to a game of capturing state resources, including money and jobs, and then dividing those resources on a loyalist sectarian basis.¹⁹Ihmad Salamey and Rhys Payne, “Parliamentary Consociationalism in Lebanon: Equal Citizenry vs. Quotated Confessionalism”, The Journal of Legislative Studies, Vol.14, No.4 (2008), pp.451–473 https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/13572330802442857

Studies show how Lebanon’s political elites have created elaborate networks in which they offer services to their supporters, with services including access to healthcare, education, and employment.²⁰Carmen Geha, From Revolt to Community-Driven Resistance: Beirut’s Year of Hell (Istituto Affari Internazionali, 2021) https://www.cespi.it/sites/default/files/osservatori/allegati/iaip2130.pdf Given the lack of adequate alternatives provided by the state, a large portion of the population rely on sectarian clientelist networks to be able to fulfil these basic needs. For example, it is not uncommon for hospitals to refuse patients treatment because they cannot afford health care. This means that dependence on clientelist networks can literally be a matter of life and death.²¹Melani Cammett, Compassionate communalism: Welfare and sectarianism in Lebanon, (Cornell University Press, 2014) https://www.cornellpress.cornell.edu/book/9780801478932/compassionate-communalism/#bookTabs=1 Political elites effectively provide a form of selective social welfare which guarantees loyalty from their supporters.

A study by university scholar Daniel Corstange examining the effect of clientelism on voter behavior in the 2009 parliamentary election of Lebanon found that a worryingly large proportion of voters were influenced by sectarian clientelist considerations when deciding how to vote. After accounting for social desirability bias, which leads voters to underreport taking bribes, the study concluded that around half of the population’s voting behavior is affected by clientelism.²²Daniel Corstange, “Clientelism in Competitive and Uncompetitive Elections”, Comparative Political Studies, Vol.5, Issue 1, (2018): 76–104 https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/0010414017695332

The sectarian political elites are closely allied with their respective religious institutions. As a result, the clerical class is in a strong position to influence public policy and block secular legislation.

How Sectarian Power-Sharing is used to Shield Corruption and Deepen Divisions

Lebanese politicians have at times invoked sectarian identity to deflect corruption allegations by reframing criticism. As public officials are appointed based on rigid sectarian quotas, accusations of wrongdoing are often presented as identity-driven attacks against the sectarian group the official represents. As a result, corrupt officials are rarely held accountable.

There has been very limited progress in achieving justice in two of the most prominent cases that have wreaked havoc on Lebanon in the last few years – the economic collapse and the Beirut port explosion. However, there are indications that sectarian divisions and the self-interest of political elites contributed to the crises.²³“Lebanon: 5 years without justice for port explosion victims, comprehensive and unobstructed investigation needed”, Amnesty International, 4 August 2025 https://www.amnesty.org/en/latest/news/2025/08/lebanon-5-years-without-justice-for-port-explosion-victims-comprehensive-and-unobstructed-investigation-needed/;
Samar Abou Ltaif and Simona Mihai-Yiannaki , “Exploring the impact of
political patronage networks on financial stability: Lebanon’s 2019 economic crisis”, Economies, Vol. 12, Iss. 7, pp. 1-21 (2024)
https://doi.org/10.3390/economies12070183;
“Lebanon” chapter, Freedom in the World 2024, (Freedom House, 2024) https://freedomhouse.org/country/lebanon/freedom-world/2024

Sectarian political tensions surrounding high-profile investigations in Lebanon have, at times, spilled into the streets and resulted in violence. On 14 October 2021, a protest by supporters of Hezbollah and the Amal Movement calling for the removal of Judge Tarek Bitar – the lead investigator into the Beirut Port Explosion – escalated into armed clashes in Beirut. The violence left at least seven people dead and dozens injured, reviving widespread fears of a return to civil war-era violence.²⁴ Maha El Dahan, Tom Perry and Laila Bassam, “Deadly shooting rocks Beirut as tensions over blast probe erupt”, Reuters, 14 October 2021 https://www.reuters.com/world/deadly-shooting-rocks-beirut-tensions-over-blast-probe-erupt-2021-10-14/

Sectarian governance is considered a major factor that has contributed to state dysfunction and government paralysis.²⁵The World Bank Group: Middle East and North Africa Region, Lebanon: Promoting Poverty Reduction and Shared Prosperity (The World Bank Group, 2015), https://documents1.worldbank.org/curated/en/698161468179049613/pdf/97498-CAS-P151430-SecM2015-0202-IFC-SecM2015-0073-MIGA-SecM2015-0047-Box391476B-OUO-9.pdf Political vacuums at the level of the presidency and the executive have been recurring events in Lebanon since 2005. In the last two decades, there was a presidential vacuum for a period of five years and two months, and governmental immobilism for a period of nine years and four months.

In 2019, the Christian Free Patriotic Movement objected to the appointment of civil servants based on sectarian grounds – claiming that the intake did not reflect a Christian-Muslim balance. As the successful candidates were predominantly Muslim, the dispute further intensified public feelings of division within the country.²⁶“ هل يمنع مسلمون من التوظيف بحجة عدم مراعاة التوازنات الطائفية في لبنان؟.”, BBC Arabic, 30 July 2019, https://www.bbc.com/arabic/trending-49169106
(Unofficial translation: “Are Muslims forbidden from being employed in the public sector because of demographic concerns”)
Existing sectarian political structures further entrench societal fragmentation and cement divisions rather than bridge differences.

These divisions were felt at a practical level in 2023 when the caretaker government, headed by the Muslim Prime Minister Najib Mikati, abruptly decided to suspend the transition to daylight saving time for one month. The decision is understood to have been motivated by a desire to appease the Muslim community who were soon to start Ramadan fasting traditions. The move would have allowed the Muslim community to break their fast at 6pm rather than 7pm. However, the decision was unpopular with Christians and other non-Muslim groups who did not accept the change. Subsequently, for a little over a week, the country was divided between so-called ‘Muslim time’ and ‘Christian time.’ Different media stations, businesses, airports, and educational institutions followed different time zones.²⁷Timour Azhari and Maya Gebeily,‘“Lebanon wakes up in two time zones because of daylight savings spat’” Reuters, 26 March 2023 https://www.reuters.com/world/middle-east/lebanon-has-two-times-day-amid-daylight-savings-dispute-2023-03-26/

Education and children’s rights

Religious education is not a requirement in public schools, but it is permitted. However, in practice, many schools operate compulsory religious education classes, with no secular or civic alternative. Recognized religious groups are permitted to run their own private schools as long as they follow constitutional obligations to ensure they do not incite sectarian discord or threaten national security.²⁸ “Lebanon” chapter, 2023 Report on International Religious Freedom, (US Department of State, 2024) https://www.state.gov/reports/2023-report-on-international-religious-freedom/lebanon/ In public schools, religious authorities from the local community can enter schools to organize and teach religious education without the oversight of the Ministry of Education. Critics consider this practice to be detrimental as it may create division and competition between the interests of different religious groups.²⁹Ali Khalife, A Nation Without Citizens وطن بلا مواطنين. Title translated from Arabic by Mazen Abou Hamdan (Dar Al Farabi Beirut, 2009)

The religious institution chosen to deliver classes is dependent on the religious affiliation of private schools, or the de-facto demographic realities of where the public schools are located. In areas that are demographically mixed, it is common practice to divide students according to their religious identities into different sub-classes for the duration of the religious education class. Ali Khalife argues that religious authorities can preach and mobilize in schools, which has the potential to foster intolerance among students and undermine efforts to cultivate citizenship and democratic values.³⁰Ali Khalife, A Nation Without Citizens وطن بلا مواطنين. Title translated from Arabic by Mazen Abou Hamdan (Dar Al Farabi Beirut, 2009)

History Education

Young people’s affiliation with their religious community is further entrenched by the way history is taught in Lebanese schools. Official school history books do not cover the period following the nation’s independence in 1943 as part of the curriculum. This is because political elites have never agreed on a common historical narrative of the civil war.³¹Ali Khalife, A Nation Without Citizens وطن بلا مواطنين. Title translated from Arabic by Mazen Abou Hamdan (Dar Al Farabi Beirut, 2009) The history curriculum has long been contested, with scholars – often divided along sectarian lines – promoting competing narratives of Lebanon’s history.³²Kamal Salibi, A House of Many Mansions, (I.B Tauris & Co. Ltd. 1988) As such, the de-facto practice is that different versions of history are taught in different schools. This has effectively led to generations of students learning different historical ‘facts’. Lebanese filmmaker Hady Zaccak documented this phenomenon by interviewing and filming schoolchildren in five different schools in Lebanon which were chosen to represent different sectarian affiliations. The film showed that the students’ perceptions of history, as well as their views about different historical figures, were radically different.³³Hady Zaccak, A History Lesson (Darson fel tabreekh / درس في التاريخ). Lebanon: NewsTime Productions / Al Jazeera Documentary Channel, 2009, 51 min.
https://www.hadyzaccak.com/ahistorylesson.html

Family, community and society

Personal Status Laws

The Constitution gives sects powers to establish their own personal status laws and judicial bodies, in which the state cannot intervene.³⁴Ali Khalife, A Nation Without Citizens وطن بلا مواطنين. Title translated from Arabic by Mazen Abou Hamdan (Dar Al Farabi Beirut, 2009); Maya Mansour and Carlos Daoud, Lebanon: The Independence and Impartiality of the Judiciary, (Euro-Mediterranean Human Rights Network, 2009) https://euromedrights.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/03/LEBANON-The-Independence-and-Impartiality-of-the-Judiciary-EN.pdf Lebanon has ten parallel sectarian and religious court systems that govern personal status matters. These courts operate independently, with little intervention or oversight from the Supreme Court. Notably, women are not allowed to serve on either Christian or Muslim religious courts and court rulings are often inconsistent, outdated, and harmful to litigants – especially women and children.³⁵Maya Mansour and Carlos Daoud, Lebanon: The Independence and Impartiality of the Judiciary, (Euro-Mediterranean Human Rights Network, 2009) https://euromedrights.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/03/LEBANON-The-Independence-and-Impartiality-of-the-Judiciary-EN.pdf

The majority of sectarian personal status laws make it very difficult, and in some cases impossible, for men and women from different religious backgrounds to get married. However, civil marriage ceremonies performed abroad are recognized, regardless of religious affiliation. In such cases, matters of inheritance are still dictated by religious courts (for example in the case of a Christian man marrying a Muslim woman, inheritance would not be permitted between partners).³⁶ Marie-Rose Zalzal, “Mixed Marriage in the Lebanese Law”, Al-Raida Journal, Vol 40 Issues 111-112 (2005).35-43 https://alraidajournal.lau.edu.lb/issues/2005/the-status-of-women-in-lebanese-legislation—fallwinter-2005-20.php

Attempts to legalize civil marriage in Lebanon

In 2012, a Lebanese couple- Khouloud Sukkarieh and Nidal Darwich – used an innovative legal approach to secure recognition of their civil marriage ceremony. They cited a 1936 decree which states that individuals who do not belong to any sect are entitled to a civil union. The couple had previously removed reference to their sects (Sunni and Shia) from the civil registry.³⁷Dalal Mawad, “Lebanon civil marriage raises hope for change”, Al Jazeera, 2 May 2013 https://www.aljazeera.com/features/2013/5/2/lebanon-civil-marriage-raises-hope-for-change Their son, born in 2013, became the first child in the country to be registered without a designated sect. Three years later, following death threats, the couple were granted asylum in Sweden.³⁸Florence Massena, “A Lebanese couple’s secular marriage triggered ‘death fatwas’. But now, Sweden wants to deport them.”, The New Arab, 5 February 2020 https://english.alaraby.co.uk/english/news/2020/2/5/sweden-deporting-lebanese-couple-despite-death-fatwas-back-home-1

In 2013, Lebanon’s Sunni Grand Mufti, Sheikh Mohammed Rashid Kabbani, issued a fatwa opposing civil marriage and called for anyone who approved it to be punished.

“Any Muslim with legal or executive authority in Lebanon who supports the legalization of civil marriage is an apostate and outside the religion of Islam […] There are predators lurking among us, trying to sow the bacteria of civil marriage in Lebanon, but they should know that the religious scholars will not hesitate to do their duty.”³⁹“Mufti Qabbani Issues Fatwa against Civil Marriage”, Naharnet, 28 January 2013
https://www.naharnet.com/stories/en/70066

The Higher Shia Council likewise expressed opposition to the legalization of civil marriage. Historically, the Maronite Patriarchate had taken a similar position, urging “solidarity” with Lebanon’s Muslim community in rejecting civil marriage.⁴⁰ Marc Bou Fadel, Khaled Merheb, Mazen Abou Hamdan& Sami Abdallah, Discrimination Against Atheists in Lebanon, (Freethought Lebanon, 2021) https://www.freethoughtlebanon.net/atheists-in-lebanon-legal-report/

According to Wadih Asmar, president of the Lebanese Center for Human Rights, religious authorities’ opposition to civil marriages in Lebanon is driven by their fear of losing power over their communities. He also argues that religious authorities have a financial incentive to oppose civil marriages, as religious ceremonies generate significant income – estimated at over 10 million US dollars annually.⁴¹Sunniva Rose, “Lebanese protest for recognition of civil marriages”, The National, 23 February 2019 https://www.thenationalnews.com/world/mena/lebanese-protest-for-recognition-of-civil-marriages-1.829311

ID Cards

Prior to 1990, Lebanese ID cards displayed an individual’s religious affiliation. However, following the end of the civil war – during which Lebanese citizens were targeted and murdered as a result of the religious affiliation of their ID cards – religion is no longer visible on newly issued cards. However, electronic data capturing religious affiliation remains embedded in the barcode of ID cards.⁴²Michael Johnson, “All Honourable Men: The Social Origins of War in Lebanon” (Centre for Lebanese Studies, Oxford University, I.B. Tauris Oxford and London, 2001) An individual’s religious affiliation also appears on the civil registry ikhraj qaid. The ikhraj qaid captures personal status information and can be used instead of an ID card for government employment and university enrollment. Removing a reference to religious affiliation from an ikhraj qaid requires only a letter to the Ministry of the Interior. By February 2019, an estimated 10,000 people in Lebanon had removed their religious affiliation.⁴³Sunniva Rose, “Lebanese protest for recognition of civil marriages”, The National, 23 February 2019 https://www.thenationalnews.com/world/mena/lebanese-protest-for-recognition-of-civil-marriages-1.829311

Discrimination against women

A review of personal status laws by Human Rights Watch in 2015 found “a clear pattern of women from all sects being treated worse than men when it comes to accessing divorce and primary care for their children”. The investigation found that women faced significant legal obstacles and discrimination as a result of court procedures.⁴⁴Human Rights Watch, Unequal and Unprotected: Women’s Rights under Lebanese Personal Status Laws, (Human Rights Watch, 2015) https://www.hrw.org/report/2015/01/19/unequal-and-unprotected/womens-rights-under-lebanese-personal-status-laws

Although parliament passed new laws in 2014 to protect women from domestic violence, many remain vulnerable. Marital rape has yet to be criminalized and religious sect-specific courts continue to hold jurisdiction – which often discriminate against women in marital matters.⁴⁵Human Rights Watch, Unequal and Unprotected: Women’s Rights under Lebanese Personal Status Laws, (Human Rights Watch, 2015) https://www.hrw.org/report/2015/01/19/unequal-and-unprotected/womens-rights-under-lebanese-personal-status-laws

Lebanon’s Decree No. 15 on Lebanese Nationality (1925)⁴⁶Decree No.15 on Lebanese Nationality including amendments, last amended 11 January 1960
https://www.refworld.org/legal/legislation/natlegbod/1925/en/115994 restricts citizenship transmission primarily to fathers, preventing Lebanese women married to foreign nationals from passing citizenship to their children. Human rights organizations note that this discrimination can leave affected children and families in prolonged legal insecurity and, in some cases, at risk of statelessness.⁴⁷“Lebanon: Discriminatory Nationality Law”, Human Rights Watch, 3 October 2018 https://www.hrw.org/news/2018/10/03/lebanon-discriminatory-nationality-law

LGBTI+ rights

While consensual same-sex relationships are not explicitly referred to under Lebanese law, Article 534 of the Penal Code⁴⁸Ministry of Justice, Lebanese Penal Code 1943 https://www.justice.gov.lb/public/uploads/%D9%82%D8%A7%D9%86%D9%88%D9%86%20%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B9%D9%82%D9%88%D8%A8%D8%A7%D8%AA%20%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AD%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%8A.pdf [Arabic] prohibits “sexual intercourse contrary to the order of nature” and carries a sentence of up to one year. Article 534 has been used to arrest, prosecute, and harass the LGBTI+ community, effectively criminalizing consensual same-sex relations in practice.

In recent years, there have been instances in which Lebanese courts have pushed back against the application of Article 534. In 2017, Judge Rabih Maalouf refused to apply Article 534 in a case against nine individuals arrested by police in 2015. Judge Maalouf cited Article 183 of the Penal Code which declares that “an act undertaken in exercise of a right without abuse shall not be regarded as an offense.”⁴⁹Graeme Reid, “Lebanon Edges Closer to Decriminalizing Same-sex Conduct”, Human Rights Watch, 2 February 2017 https://www.hrw.org/news/2017/02/02/lebanon-edges-closer-decriminalizing-same-sex-conduct#:~:text=In%20his%20ruling%2C%20Judge%20Maalouf,done%2C%20there%20is%20no%20crime In 2018, the Appeals Court upheld the acquittal of the defendants and ruled that consensual same sex activity is not unlawful.⁵⁰“Major court victory in Lebanon: consensual same-sex intimacy not a crime”, Human Dignity Trust, 20 July 2018 https://www.humandignitytrust.org/news/major-court-victory-in-lebanon-consensual-same-sex-intimacy-not-a-crime/ Despite these rulings, Article 534 remains in force and Lebanon has not adopted effective legal protections for the LGBTI+ community.

Same-sex marriages and civil unions in Lebanon are not legally recognized and there is no national ban on conversion therapy practices. There have been some instances in which individuals have been able to change their legal gender through court rulings, however, these are typically on a case-by-case basis and outcomes vary.⁵¹“LGBT Rights in Lebanon”, Equaldex, accessed September 2025 https://www.equaldex.com/region/lebanon

In 2018, the Lebanese General Security Forces conducted a security raid and attempted to shut down the annual NEDWA (Networking, Exchange, Developments, Wellness, Achievement) conference – a regional conference on gender and sexuality organized by the Arab Foundation for Freedoms and Equality (AFE) and held in Beirut since 2013. Human Rights Watch reported that the rationale for attempting to shut down the conference was unclear, but this was shortly followed by public statements from the Muslim Scholars Association calling for the organizers’ arrest and the cancellation of the conference on the grounds of “incitement to immorality.”⁵²“Lebanon: Security Forces Try to Close LGBT Conference”, Human Rights Watch, 16 April 2018 https://www.hrw.org/news/2018/10/04/lebanon-security-forces-try-close-lgbt-conference The following year, the AFE arranged for the conference to take place outside of Lebanon as a result of the 2018 raid and the deteriorating situation for the LGBTI+ community.⁵³“Lebanon: Entry Ban Follows Gender, Sexuality Conference”, Human Rights Watch, 27 August 2019 https://www.hrw.org/news/2019/08/27/lebanon-entry-ban-follows-gender-sexuality-conference

Beirut is relatively tolerant of LGBTI+ rights when compared with other cities in Lebanon. After the 2020 chemical blast in Beirut, many Lebanese LGBTI+ community members who had built lives there reported losing much of what they once considered their ‘safe spaces’.⁵⁴Charlene Gubash, “For Beirut’s gay community, chemical blast shattered a safe space”, NBC News, 5 September 2020 https://www.nbcnews.com/feature/nbc-out/beirut-s-gay-community-chemical-blast-shattered-safe-space-n1239076

There has also been a rise in hate speech and attacks against members of the LGBT+ community, from both Muslim and Christian radical groups.⁵⁵Bassem Mroue and Kareem Chehayeb, “Rainbows, drag shows, movies: Lebanon’s leaders go after perceived symbols of the LGBTQ+ community”, Associated Press, 1 September 2023 https://apnews.com/article/lebanon-lgbtq-beirut-human-rights-38399886d44895c85eb70bbfd8e711ac For example, the last few years have seen the rise of a dangerous group called Junood Al Rab (Soldiers of God) in underprivileged Christian neighborhoods in the Greater Beirut Area. The group is a far-right Christian ultranationalist group that has carried out several violent attacks, including attacks on LGBTI+ people in Beirut.⁵⁶Mohamad El Kari, “The rise of Soldiers of God: Is Beirut back to the time of the militias?”, International Centre for the Study of Radicalisation, 2 July 2024 https://icsr.info/2024/07/02/the-rise-of-soldiers-of-god-is-beirut-back-to-the-time-of-the-militias/

The group has actively campaigned against and attacked LGBTI+ friendly spaces and symbols. In June 2022, they destroyed a billboard with the LGBTI+ rainbow flag set up by Beirut Pride, and in August 2023, they attacked an LGBTI+ friendly bar in Beirut, derailing a drag show and trapping people inside while shouting homophobic slurs. They accuse the LGBTI+ community of promoting “satanism” and warn that “families must be careful with their children; they [LGBTI+ people] kidnap them”. The members of the group also abide by a particular appearance that reflects their ultra-masculine worldview: muscular, tattooed, bearded, and often dressed in black.⁵⁷Caroline Hayek, “Who are Achrafieh’s ‘Soldiers of God’?”, L’Orient Today, 1 July 2022 https://today.lorientlejour.com/article/1304447/who-are-ashrafiehs-soldiers-of-god.html;
“Lebanon: Attack on LGBTI bar another ominous sign of deteriorating rights situation”, Amnesty International, 24 August 2023 https://www.amnesty.org/en/latest/news/2023/08/lebanon-attack-on-lgbti-bar-another-ominous-sign-of-deteriorating-rights-situation/ ;
Erzsébet Fanni Tóth, Kamila Midor & Enikő Darabos, “Psychotherapy boosting future risk research: the role of radical masculinities in social polarisation from a trauma-informed perspective”, European Journal of Futures, (2025) Vol. 13. 3. https://eujournalfuturesresearch.springeropen.com/articles/10.1186/s40309-025-00247-7

Marginalization of Non-religious Individuals

As political representation, and even employment in the public sector, are largely dictated by religious quotas, non-religious individuals are therefore excluded from political representation and public employment. In a 2021 survey conducted by Freethought Lebanon of 644 atheists residing in the country, more than 97% of respondents indicated that “the Lebanese political system does not respect and is not inclusive to atheists.”⁵⁸Sami Abdallah, Patrick Abi Salloum, Michel Semaan, Mazen Abou Hamdan& Mohammed Jaber, Survey: Discrimination Against Atheists in Lebanon, (Freethought Lebanon, 2021) https://www.freethoughtlebanon.net/atheists-in-lebanon-survey/

Moreover, atheists are largely discriminated against in the social sphere. 73% felt that they were treated unfairly by the Lebanese personal status laws and over 80% felt that Lebanese educational institutions instigate or incite hatred against atheists. 71% felt that their atheism, or expression thereof, might cause them legal problems in Lebanon, and 90% have practiced self-censorship on their views regarding atheism to avoid social or legal consequences. Atheists are often portrayed as “immoral”, “disloyal”, “untrustworthy”, “materialistic”, “satanic”, and as “foreign agents.” Many employers have dismissed atheist workers, viewing them as “morally corrupt” and as posing a reputational risk for the employer. Moreover, many atheists are physically and emotionally abused by family members, including forced evictions, violence, and death threats. Atheists are also vilified in the media.⁵⁹Sami Abdallah, Patrick Abi Salloum, Michel Semaan, Mazen Abou Hamdan & Mohammed Jaber, Survey: Discrimination Against Atheists in Lebanon, (Freethought Lebanon, 2021) https://www.freethoughtlebanon.net/atheists-in-lebanon-survey/

Freedom of Expression, advocacy of humanist values

The Constitution guarantees freedom of expression, assembly and association and Lebanon has a long tradition of press freedom. However, the media often self-censors as it is heavily dependent on the patronage of political parties and wealthy individuals.⁶⁰“Lebanon” chapter, Freedom in the World 2025, (Freedom House, 2025) https://freedomhouse.org/country/lebanon/freedom-world/2025;
“Lebanon”, Reporters Without Borders, accessed 11 December 2025 https://rsf.org/en/country/lebanon

There are significant limitations to freedom of expression as it intersects with freedom of religion or belief: by law, the government is permitted to censor religious publications if it deems such material incites sectarian discord or threatens national security. Criminal defamation clauses providing for prison sentences and fines also limit free expression.⁶¹“There Is a Price to Pay: The Criminalization of Peaceful Speech in Lebanon”, Human Rights Watch, 15 November 2019 https://www.hrw.org/report/2019/11/15/there-price-pay/criminalization-peaceful-speech-lebanon In addition criticism of the army, the President or religious authorities is strictly limited by law.⁶²Marc Bou Fadel, Khaled Merheb, Mazen Abou Hamdan & Sami Abdallah, Discrimination Against Atheists in Lebanon, (Freethought Lebanon, 2021) https://www.freethoughtlebanon.net/atheists-in-lebanon-legal-report/

Films and other forms of art are regularly censored if they contain any material considered contentious. For instance, a film making a passing reference to Lebanon’s assassinated President, or a piece of graffiti caricaturing the King of Saudi Arabia.⁶³“Lebanon: New Coalition to Defend Free Speech”, Human Rights Watch, 13 July 2020 https://www.hrw.org/news/2020/07/13/lebanon-new-coalition-defend-free-speech

Blasphemy

The Lebanese Penal Code contains three articles that effectively criminalize “blasphemy.” Article 473 of the Lebanese Penal code criminalizes “blaspheming God publicly”. This offense carries a prison term that can extend from one month to one year. Article 474 carries a maximum sentence of three years (with a minimum of six months) for contempt of religion and “defaming religious rites” or publicly insulting a religion or religious rites. Article 475 criminalizes the “distortion of religious rituals or ceremonies”, in addition to the desecration of religious and sacred objects.

In addition, Article 317 criminalizes “writings and speech intended to provoke sectarian or racial strife or [to] encourage conflict between different religious sects.” The maximum prison term is three years and can include a fine. According to Human Rights Watch Lebanon, these provisions are often applied in ways that restrict free speech and expression.⁶⁴“There Is a Price to Pay: The Criminalization of Peaceful Speech in Lebanon”, Human Rights Watch, 15 November 2019 https://www.hrw.org/report/2019/11/15/there-price-pay/criminalization-peaceful-speech-lebanon

Highlighted cases

Stand-up comedians in Lebanon, such as Nour Hajjar and Shaden Faqih, have faced immense pressure, including death threats and lawsuits, because they allegedly made jokes that were deemed insulting to religion.⁶⁵ “Lebanon: Comedian arrested for critical jokes”, Amnesty International, 31 August 2023 https://www.amnesty.org/en/latest/news/2023/08/lebanon-comedian-arrested-for-critical-jokes/ Shaden Faqih, an openly lesbian woman, has since chosen to leave Lebanon and live abroad.⁶⁶“Comedian Shaden Fakih leaves Lebanon after controversy over one of her shows”, L’Orient Today, 18 July 2024 https://today.lorientlejour.com/article/1420712/comedian-shaden-fakih-leaves-lebanon-after-religious-controversy-over-one-of-her-sketches.html In late 2025, comedian Mario Moubarak faced a barrage of abuse on social media after a joke about Jesus from his performance circulated online. He also received numerous death threats after his phone number was shared online. Moubarak was publicly condemned by the Lebanese Catholic Media Center and a private complaint was filed under Articles 473 and 474 of the Penal Code. He was later detained at Beirut airport and released after his passport and phone were confiscated.⁶⁷“Comedian Mario Moubarak detained by GS at the airport”, L’Orient Today, 5 December 2025 https://today.lorientlejour.com/article/1487462/comedian-mario-moubarak-detained-by-gs-at-the-airport.html

A Facebook user, Said Abdallah, was questioned by Lebanon’s Cybercrimes Bureau in 2021 and briefly jailed after complaints were made about his social media posts. Investigators allegedly blindfolded him, subjected him to insults and intimidation, and forced him to unlock his phone and delete posts. He was released eight days later after the public prosecutor referred the case to the criminal prosecutor. It followed an earlier episode in 2020, when he spent 46 days in detention over Facebook posts criticizing the President and content claimed to be offensive to Christianity.⁶⁸Sami Abdallah, Mazen Abou Hamden et al. Atheists in Lebanon: Human Rights Violations Report, (Freethought Lebanon, 2021)
https://www.freethoughtlebanon.net/wp-content/uploads/2021/04/atheists_in_lebanon_full_report.pdf

In July 2019, Lebanese Byblos music festival was forced to cancel a planned performance of the band Mashrou’ Leila “in order to prevent bloodshed and to maintain security and stability” following backlash from Christian fundamentalist groups. Reports vary regarding the precise cause of discontent. Some reports state that objections related to two songs in particular, which they alleged were blasphemous, while others indicate that they related to a four-year-old post on Facebook of a controversial image that transposed the face of pop diva Madonna onto an image of the Virgin Mary, which they alleged insulted Christian beliefs.⁶⁹“Lebanon cancels concert by gay-fronted band Mashrou’ Leila after religious threats”, The New Arab, 30 July 2019 https://www.newarab.com/news/lebanon-cancels-mashrou-leila-concert-prevent-bloodshed

Testimonies

“I am an agnostic atheist and I did come out proudly as one in Lebanon. As expected, I was cyber bullied for it but it didn’t stop me from voicing my opinion on religion and its impact on society and especially on gender issues. I mostly hang out with fellow atheists now but before that, I lost friends because of my views. I tend to keep my religious views to myself at work because it could affect my relationship with colleagues and it is not worth it.”

— Xena